The Slicer Combined with an Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy (SCALES) will be the first facility-class integral field spectrograph (IFS) to operate between 2-5 microns. Expected to see first light at W. M. Keck Observatory in 2025, SCALES will extend the parameter space of directly imaged exoplanets to those that are colder, and thus older. SCALES will perform high-contrast imaging of these objects and other targets including protoplanetary disks, Solar System objects, and supernovae. Interferometric techniques such as non-redundant aperture masking (NRM) have been demonstrated to improve spatial resolution at high contrasts. Aperture masking turns a telescope into an interferometer by blocking the pupil with an opaque mask with some number of circular holes. Here we present the final designs for the non-redundant masks that will be integrated into SCALES. We outline their design, manufacturing, characterization, and integration processes. We also present the injection and recovery of several planet and disk companion models into mock SCALES science frames to assess the performance of the selected designs.
KEYWORDS: Planets, Stars, Point spread functions, Exoplanets, Speckle, Atmospheres, Spectral resolution, Atmospheric modeling, Simulations, Signal to noise ratio
SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) is a high-contrast lenslet-based integral field spectrograph (IFS) designed to characterize exoplanet atmospheres in the 2 - 5 micron wavelength range. The SCALES medium-resolution mode provides the ability to characterize exoplanets at increased spectral resolution via the use of a lenslet subarray with a 0.34 x 0.36 arcsecond field of view and an image slicer. We use the SCALES simulator scalessim to generate high-fidelity mock observations of planets in the mediumresolution mode that include realistic Keck adaptive optics performance, as well as other atmospheric and instrumental noise effects, to simulate planet detections, and then employ angular differential imaging to extract the planet spectra. Analyzing the recovered spectra from these simulations allows us to quantify the effects of systematic noise sources on planet characterization, in particular residual speckle noise following angular differential data processing. We use these simulated recovered spectra to explore SCALES’ ability to constrain molecular abundances and disequilibrium chemistry in giant exoplanet atmospheres.
Wide Field Optical Spectrograph (WFOS) is the first light instrument of Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), which will be one of the wide field spectrographs for optical spectroscopy and can probe the faintest limits. In order to reach the faintest limits provided by the aperture of TMT, WFOS is designed to have multi-object slit-based spectrograph. WFOS can observe about ~60 objects in a given exposure and cover the full wavelength range in low resolution (R~1500) observing mode. Slitless spectroscopy has been popular in space based instruments, however it is not pursued in ground based observatories due to the background contamination. Considering large plate scale of TMT and oversampling of seeing disk we will be able to extract the individual spectra from WFOS slitless observing mode. Here we present the feasibility of slitless mode of TMT-WFOS and the sensitivity limit for various field densities focusing on MilkyWay satellite galaxies. We study the background contamination due to the bright targets and the density distribution of the satellite galaxy fields.
SCALES, which stands for Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy, is a next-generation instrument planned for the Keck observatory. Primarily, the instrument will do high-contrast imaging and integral field spectroscopy (IFS) of directly imaged exoplanets in a 2.0–5.2 µm wavelength band. The IFS channel of SCALES offers low-resolution (R=35-250) and medium-resolution (R=2500-7000) modes, for the discovery and spectral characterisation of the atmospheres of cold, high-mass exoplanets, and brown-dwarfs with temperatures <600 K. The array of lenslet/slenslit yields multiple spectra in each frame, forming a 3D spectral cube (x, y, λi) of the spatial scene. To facilitate the spectral extraction, a robust calibration system is required to measure the point spread function (PSF) of the IFS at different wavelengths and spatial locations. This calibration system is strategically integrated before the telescope's focus and adoptive optics system, playing a dual role: generating the telescope beam and forming a pupil that aligns with the Keck's pupil before reaching SCALES. In this work, we describe the calibration requirements, design, analysis, and functionality.
SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) is the next-generation, diffraction-limited, thermal infrared, fully cryogenic, coronagraphic exoplanet spectrograph and imager for W.M. Keck Observatory. SCALES is fed by the Keck II Adaptive Optics bench. Both modes use common fore-optics to simplify the optical design and have individual detectors, which are JWST flight spares. The imager mode operates from 1 to 5 microns with selectable narrow- and broadband filters over a field of view 12.3 arcseconds on a side, and the integral field spectrograph mode operates from 2 to 5 microns with both low and mid spectral resolutions (R∼ 100 to R∼ 7500) over a field of view 2.15 arcseconds on a side. The diamond-turned aluminum optics, most of which are already delivered, with the rest being fabricated, provide low distortion, low wavefront error, and high throughput for all modes. The slicing unit, located behind the lenslet array, allows SCALES to reach heretofore unheard-of spatially-resolved spectral resolution for exoplanet and disc observations from the ground with a coronagraphic integral field spectrograph. The SCALES consortium includes UC Observatories, CalTech, W.M. Keck Observatory, the Indian Institute of Astrophysics, and the University of Durham, with over 40 science team members. We report on the overall design and project status during its ongoing fabrication phase, which started in early 2023.
We present a conceptual design for a fiber positioning system for multi-object high-resolution spectroscopy, designed to be compatible with the upcoming large telescopes with a wide field of view. The design incorporates multiple Atmospheric Dispersion Correctors (ADCs) and tip-tilt mirrors that receive non-telecentric input from individual targets and direct it to the ADCs. Here, we introduce a mechanical design for the fiber positioner that accommodates the optics and operates in a curved focal plane with a Radius of Curvature (R) of 3m. This mechanical design provides four degrees of freedom to access the focal volume, enhancing targeting efficiency. The proposed design and an efficient target allocation algorithm ensure a targeting efficiency of approximately 80-100% for a primary observation session. We also present a methodology for target assignment, positioning, and quantification based on sequential and Monte Carlo (MC) algorithms. This method has been tested on realistic fields with varying target densities to validate its performance.
The SCALES instrument is a high-contrast imager and integral field spectrograph that operates in the infrared wavelength and is intended to be utilized behind W.M. Keck Observatory’s adaptive optics system. The instrument operates over a broad wavelength range from 1.0 to 5.0 μm. The instrument includes a microlens array-based integral field spectrograph that is used with slicer optics and allows for low (R ∼ 35 - 250) and moderate (R ∼ 2000 - 6500) spectral resolution spectroscopy. We have implemented end-to-end modeling of the SCALES instrument optics using both geometric optics and physical optics. This analysis has been useful to understand the spectral formats, spectral resolution, and point spread functions. We have also modeled the geometric PSF from lenslets and combined it with the diffraction effects to model the crosstalk between the closely spaced lenslet spectra. The psf modeling are being integrated with the SCALES simulator to simulate realistic data products that are being used to develop the SCALES data pipeline.
The SCALES instrument is a high-contrast imager and integral field spectrograph that operates in the infrared region and is intended to be utilized behind the W.M. Keck Observatory's adaptive optics system. The SCALES integral field spectrograph operates over a broad wavelength range from 2.0 to 5.0 µm. The instrument includes a microlens array-based integral field spectrograph that, when combined with a lenslet to slicer reformatter referred to as "slenslit," allows for low (R = 35 - 250) and moderate (R = 2000 - 6500) spectral resolution spectroscopy. We have done extensive end-to-end modeling of the SCALES optical path using both geometric optics and physical optics. This analysis has been vital in predicting both spectral format and optical performance. We have also combined the predicted geometric point spread function (PSF) given a complete end-to-end system including the SCALES lenslet array IFU, with modeled diffraction effects to understand the crosstalk between the spectra. The PSF modeling is being integrated with the SCALES instrument simulator to provide realistic data products that are being used to develop the SCALES data pipeline.
SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) is a 2 micron to 5 micron high-contrast lenslet-based Integral Field Spectrograph (IFS) designed to characterize exoplanets and their atmospheres. The SCALES medium-spectral-resolution mode uses a lenslet subarray with a 0.34 x 0.36 arcsecond field of view which allows for exoplanet characterization at increased spectral resolution. We explore the sensitivity limitations of this mode by simulating planet detections in the presence of realistic noise sources. We use the SCALES simulator scalessim to generate high-fidelity mock observations of planets that include speckle noise from their host stars, as well as other atmospheric and instrumental noise effects. We employ both angular and reference differential imaging as methods of disentangling speckle noise from the injected planet signals. These simulations allow us to assess the feasibility of speckle deconvolution for SCALES medium resolution data, and to test whether one approach outperforms another based on planet angular separations and contrasts.
The Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy (SCALES) is an under-construction thermal infrared high-contrast integral field spectrograph that will be located at the W. M. Keck Observatory. SCALES will detect and characterize planets that are currently inaccessible to detailed study by operating at thermal (2 μm to 5 μm) wavelengths and leveraging integral-field spectroscopy to readily distinguish exoplanet radiation from residual starlight. SCALES’ wavelength coverage and medium-spectral-resolution (R ∼ 4,000) modes will also enable investigations of planet accretion processes. We explore the scientific requirements of additional custom gratings and filters for incorporation into SCALES that will optimally probe tracers of accretion in forming planets. We use ray-traced hydrogen emission line profiles (i.e., Brγ, Brα) and the SCALES end-to-end simulator, scalessim, to generate grids of high-fidelity mock datasets of accreting planetary systems with varying characteristics (e.g., Teff, planet mass, planet radius, mass accretion rate). In this proceeding, we describe potential specialized modes that best differentiate accretion properties and geometries from the simulated observations.
The Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy (SCALES) is a 2 μm to 5 μm, high-contrast Integral Field Spectrograph (IFS) currently being built for Keck Observatory. With both low (R ≲ 250) and medium (R approximately 3500 to 7000) spectral resolution IFS modes, SCALES will detect and characterize significantly colder exoplanets than those accessible with near-infrared (approximately 1 μm to 2 μm) high-contrast spectrographs. This will lead to new progress in exoplanet atmospheric studies, including detailed characterization of benchmark systems that will advance the state of the art of atmospheric modeling. SCALES’ unique modes, while designed specifically for direct exoplanet characterization, will enable a broader range of novel (exo)planetary observations as well as galactic and extragalactic studies. Here we present the science cases that drive the design of SCALES. We describe an end-to-end instrument simulator that we use to track requirements and show simulations of expected science yields for each driving science case. We conclude with a discussion of preparations for early science when the instrument sees first light in approximately 2025.
The Slicer Combined with an Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy (SCALES) instrument is a lenslet-based integral field spectrograph that will operate at 2 to 5 microns, imaging and characterizing colder (and thus older) planets than current high-contrast instruments. Its spatial resolution for distant science targets and/or close-in disks and companions could be improved via interferometric techniques such as sparse aperture masking. We introduce a nascent Python package, NRM-artist, that we use to design several SCALES masks to be non-redundant and to have uniform coverage in Fourier space. We generate high-fidelity mock SCALES data using the scalessim package for SCALES’ low spectral resolution modes across its 2 to 5 micron bandpass. We include realistic noise from astrophysical and instrument sources, including Keck adaptive optics and Poisson noise. We inject planet and disk signals into the mock datasets and subsequently recover them to test the performance of SCALES sparse aperture masking and to determine the sensitivity of various mask designs to different science signals.
HISPEC is a new, high-resolution near-infrared spectrograph being designed for the W.M. Keck II telescope. By offering single-shot, R 100,000 spectroscopy between 0.98 – 2.5 μm, HISPEC will enable spectroscopy of transiting and non-transiting exoplanets in close orbits, direct high-contrast detection and spectroscopy of spatially separated substellar companions, and exoplanet dynamical mass and orbit measurements using precision radial velocity monitoring calibrated with a suite of state-of-the-art absolute and relative wavelength references. MODHIS is the counterpart to HISPEC for the Thirty Meter Telescope and is being developed in parallel with similar scientific goals. In this proceeding, we provide a brief overview of the current design of both instruments, and the requirements for the two spectrographs as guided by the scientific goals for each. We then outline the current science case for HISPEC and MODHIS, with focuses on the science enabled for exoplanet discovery and characterization. We also provide updated sensitivity curves for both instruments, in terms of both signal-to-noise ratio and predicted radial velocity precision.
Highly multiplexed spectroscopic surveys have changed the astronomy landscape in recent years. However, these surveys are limited to low and medium spectral resolution. High spectral resolution spectroscopy is often photon starved and will benefit from a large telescope aperture. Multiplexed high-resolution surveys require a wide field of view and a large aperture for a suitable large number of bright targets. This requirement introduces several practical difficulties, especially for large telescopes, such as the future ELTs. Some of the challenges are the need for a wide field atmospheric dispersion corrector and to deal with the curved non-telecentric focal plane. Here we present a concept of Multi-Object Spectroscopy (MOS) mode for TMT High-Resolution Optical Spectrograph (HROS), where we have designed an atmospheric dispersion corrector for individual objects that fit inside a fiber positioner. We present the ZEMAX design and the performance of the atmospheric dispersion corrector for all elevations accessible by TMT.
At first light, the NIR instruments of TMT will be assisted by a multi-conjugate adaptive optics instrument, known as the Narrow Field Infrared Adaptive Optics System (NFIRAOS). NFIRAOS will use laser guide stars for distortion correction in a field of view of 2 arcmin diameter, but natural guide stars will be required for tip/tilt correction. A catalogue of guide stars with NIR magnitudes as faint as 22 mags in J band (Vega system), covering the TMT-observable sky will be a critical resource for the efficient operation of NFIRAOS and no catalogue currently exists with objects so faint and cover the entire TMT observable sky. Hence it is essential to develop such a catalogue by computing the expected NIR magnitudes of stellar sources, identified in deep optical sky surveys, by using their optical magnitudes. In this paper, we will discuss a road map created for the generation of the Infrared Guide Star Catalogue (IRGSC) for the TMT using the optical data of stellar sources from the Pan-STARRS observations and computing their NIR magnitudes by using stellar atmospheric models and Spectral Energy Distribution (SED) fits. We have validated the computed NIR magnitudes of the sources in some fields by using the available NIR data for those fields. We find our method to be satisfactory, thereby creating a path for the final production of the IRGSC using the Pan-STARRS and put forward the challenges that need to be overcome in the future development of IRGSC.
A next-generation instrument named, Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy (SCALES), is being planned for the W. M. Keck Observatory. SCALES will have an integral field spectrograph (IFS) and a diffraction-limited imaging channel to discover and spectrally characterize the directly imaged exoplanets. Operating at thermal infrared wavelengths (1-5 μm, and a goal of 0.6-5 μm), the imaging channel of the SCALES is designed to cover a 12′′ × 12′′ field of view with low distortions and high throughput. Apart from expanding the mid-infrared science cases and providing a potential upgrade/alternative for the NIRC2, the H2RG detector of the imaging channel can take high-resolution images of the pupil to aid the alignment process. Further, the imaging camera would also assist in small field acquisition for the IFS arm. In this work, we present the optomechanical design of the imager and evaluate its capabilities and performances.
We present the current design of WFOS, a wide-field UV/optical (0.31-1.0 µm) imaging spectrograph planned for first-light on the TMT International Observatory 30 m telescope. WFOS is optimized for high sensitivity across the entire optical waveband for low-to-moderate resolution (R ∼ 1500-5000) long-slit and multi-slit spectroscopy of very faint targets over a contiguous field of view of 8′ .3×3 ′ .0 at the f/15 Nasmyth focus of TMT. A key design goal for WFOS is stability and repeatability in all observing modes, made possible by its gravity-invariant opto-mechanical structure, with a vertical rotation axis and all reconfigurable components moving only in planes defined by tiered optical benches parallel to the Nasmyth platform. WFOS’s optics include a linear ADC correcting a 9′ diameter field, including both the science FoV and 4 patrolling acquisition, guiding, and wavefront sensing camera systems; a novel 2-mirror reflective collimator allowing the science FoV to be centered on the telescope optical axis; a dichroic beamsplitter dividing the collimated beam into 2 wavelength-optimized spectrometer channels (blue: 0.31-0.56 µm; red: 0.54-1.04 µm); selectable transmissive dispersers (VPH and/or VBG) with remotely configurable grating tilt (angle of incidence) and camera articulation that enable optimization of diffraction efficiency and wavelength coverage in each channel; all-refractive, wavelength-optimized f/2 spectrograph cameras, and UV/blue and red-optimized detector systems. The predicted instrumental through put of WFOS for spectroscopy averages > 56% over the full 0.31-1 µm range, from the ADC to the detector. When combined with the 30 m TMT aperture, WFOS will realize a factor of ∼20 gain in sensitivity compared to the current state of the art on 8-10 m-class telescopes.
We present the design of SCALES (Slicer Combined with Array of Lenslets for Exoplanet Spectroscopy) a new 2-5 micron coronagraphic integral field spectrograph under construction for Keck Observatory. SCALES enables low-resolution (R∼50) spectroscopy, as well as medium-resolution (R∼4,000) spectroscopy with the goal of discovering and characterizing cold exoplanets that are brightest in the thermal infrared. Additionally, SCALES has a 12x12” field-of-view imager that will be used for general adaptive optics science at Keck. We present SCALES’s specifications, its science case, its overall design, and simulations of its expected performance. Additionally, we present progress on procuring, fabricating and testing long lead-time components.
Precision Doppler spectroscopy serves as an important tool for Radial Velocity (RV) measurements by observing Doppler shift in the stellar spectrum, which are used for various applications. Passively stabilized Fabry-Perot (FP) etalon based wavelength calibration is one of the techniques used for Doppler spectroscopy. The FP is kept in a pressure and temperature-stabilized environment for it to produce equispaced transmission lines. Since the FP is stable and the line shape is invariant across wavelength pass band, they can be used to determine the spectrograph’s instrumental artifacts and hence analyze spectrograph performance. Knowledge of instrument effects also helps in better prediction of the wavelength calibration model for the spectrograph. We have tested a passively stabilized FP on Vainu Bappu Telescope (VBT) Echelle spectrograph and Hanle Echelle spectrograph (HESP) and observed field curvature and distortion in both. We are analyzing the artifacts introduced and correcting for the same using image processing methods to compensate for the same in wavelength calibration model developed for the FP-based calibrator.
The Wide Field Optical Spectrograph (WFOS) is one of the first-light instruments of Thirty Meter Telescope. It is a medium resolution, multi object, wide field optical spectrograph. Since 2005 the conceptual design of the instrument has focused on a slit-mask based, grating exchange design that will be mounted at the Nasmyth focus of TMT. Based on the experience with ESI, MOSFIRE and DEIMOS for Keck we know flexure related image motion will be a major problem with such a spectrograph and a compensation system is required to mitigate these effects.
We have developed a flexure Compensation and Simulation (FCS) tool for TMT-WFOS that provides an interface to accurately simulate the effects of instrument flexure at the WFOS detector plane (e.g image shifts) using perturbation of key optical elements and also derive corrective motions to compensate the image shifts caused by instrument flexure. We are currently using the tool to do mote-carlo simulations to validate the optical design of a slit-mask concept we call Xchange-WFOS, and to optimize the flexure compensation strategy. We intend to use the tool later in the design process to predict the actual flexure by replacing the randomized inputs with the signed displacement and rotations of each element predicted by global FEA model on the instrument..
The Wide Field Optical Spectrometer (WFOS) is a seeing limited, multi-object spectrograph and first light instrument for the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) scheduled for first observations in 2027. The spectrograph will deliver a minimum resolution of R~5,000 over a simultaneous wavelength range of 310 nm to 1,000 nm with a multiplexing goal of between 20 and 700 targets. The WFOS team consisting of partners in China, India, Japan, and the United States has completed a trade study of two competing concepts intended to meet the design requirements derived from the WFOS detailed science case. The first of these design concepts is a traditional slit mask instrument capable of delivering R~1,000 for up to 100 simultaneous targets using 1 x 7 arc second slits, and a novel focal plane slicing method for R~5,000 on up to 20 simultaneous targets can be achieved by reformatting the 1 arc-second wide slits into three 0.3 arc-second slits projected next to each other in the spatial direction. The second concept under consideration is a highly multiplexed fiber based system utilizing a robotic fiber positioning system at the focal plane containing 700 individual collectors, and a cluster of up to 12 replicated spectrographs with a minimum resolution of R~5,000 over the full pass band. Each collecting element will contain a bundle of 19 fibers coupled to micro-lens arrays that allow for contiguous coverage of targets and adaptation of the f/15 telescope beam to f/3.2 for feeding the fiber system. This report describes the baseline WFOS design, provides an overview of the two trade study concepts, and the process used to down-select between the two options. Also included is a risk assessment regarding the known technical challenges in the selected design concept.
Precision Doppler spectroscopy serves as an important tool for Radial Velocity (RV) observations of stars. High precision spectroscopy is bound by two major challenges, first being the instrument instability which is mainly caused by temperature and pressure variations and second, the limitations imposed by traditional wavelength calibration methods. In this work we report our progress on the development of a passively stabilized Fabry-Perot (FP) calibrator. We have designed and built an air-spaced etalon with 30 GHz free spectral range for accurately tracking the short-term drift of our high resolution (R = 60,000) Echelle spectrograph on Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT), Hanle. Instrument is built using off-the-shelf components, with the required temperature and pressure stability being achieved in initial test runs. For transporting light in and out of the vacuum system without incurring losses at fiber interconnects, we have used a simple way to insert a FC/APC connectorized fiber into the flange. We also present the results of transmission spectra of the FP taken with high resolution Fourier Transform Spectrometer.
Hanle echelle spectrograph (HESP) is a high resolution, bench mounted, fiber-fed spectrograph at visible wavelengths. The instrument was recently installed at the 2m Himalayan Chandra Telescope (HCT), located at Indian Astronomical Observatory (IAO), Hanle at an altitude of 4500m. The telescope and the spectrograph are operated remotely from Bangalore,(∼ 3200km from Hanle), through a dedicated satellite link. HESP was designed and built by Kiwi Star Optics, Callaghan Innovation, New Zealand. The spectrograph has two spectral resolution modes (R=30000 and 60000). The low resolution mode uses a 100 micron fiber as a input slit and the high resolution mode is achieved using an image slicer. An R2 echelle grating, along with two cross dispersing prisms provide a continuous wavelength coverage between 350-1000nm. The spectrograph is enclosed in a thermally controlled environment and provides a stability of 200m/s during a night. A simultaneous thorium-argon calibration provides a radial velocity precision of 20m/s. Here, we present a design overview, performance and commissioning of the spectrograph.
The polarization introduced due to Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) optics is calculated using an analytical model. Mueller matrices are also generated for each optical element using Zemax, based on which the instrumental polarization due to the entire system at the focal plane is estimated and compared with the analytical model. This study is significant in the estimation of the telescope sensitivity and also has great implications for future instruments.
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