We experimentally demonstrate an autonomous, fully tunable and scalable optical neural network of 400+ parallel nodes based on a large area, multimode semiconductor laser. We implement hardware compatible, online learning strategies based on reinforcement learning and evolutionary strategies and evaluate them in terms of performance and energy cost. Our system achieves high performance and a high classification bandwidth of 15KHz for the MNIST dataset. Our approach is highly scalable both in terms of classification bandwidth and neural network size due to our device's short response time (nanosecond).
We present an optical spectroscopic study of InGaAs/AlInAs active region of quantum cascade lasers grown by low pressure metal organic vapor phase epitaxy combined with subwavelength gratings fabricated by reactive ion etching. Fourier-transformed photoluminescence measurements were used to compare the emission properties of structures before and after processing the gratings. Our results demonstrate a significant increase of the photoluminescence intensity related to intersubband transitions in the mid-infrared, which is attributed to coupling with the grating modes via so called photonic Fano resonances. Our findings demonstrate a promising method for enhancing the emission in optoelectronic devices operating in a broad range of application-relevant infrared.
We design, fabricate, characterize, and compare 980 nm vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) with monolithic high contrast gratings (MHCGs) as top coupling mirrors. The MHCG is a series of parallel, rectangular stripes etched into a uniform GaAs epitaxial surface layer via electron-beam lithography and inductively coupled reactive ion etching, with specific grating period, height, and fill factor (defined as the grating bar width divided by the grating period). To boost the MHCG’s optical power reflectance at 980 nm and the width of the optical stopband we add a 5.5-period p-doped distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) beneath the MHCG grating, thus forming a composite DBR plus MHCG top coupling mirror. The bottom n-doped DBR is a conventional all-semiconductor AlGaAs/GaAs DBR with 37-periods on a GaAs substrate. We fabricate single 980 nm DBR MHCG VCSELs with two oxide aperture diameters on quarter wafer pieces from starting 3- inch diameter VCSEL epitaxial wafers. Each quarter wafer contains six complete unit cells, and each unit cell is a twodimensional array of single VCSELs in 16 rows and 15 columns. We for example set a constant but different grating period in five of the unit cells and vary the grating fill factors from column to column and we vary the oxide aperture diameters from 1 to 9 Pm in the rows, thus yielding a large variety of VCSEL diodes with differing MHCG parameters for us to compare. We perform room temperature on-wafer probe testing of the static optical output power-current-voltage (LIV) characteristics and emission spectra and compare the impact of the grating designs on these test results. We report record static LIV performance for our DBR MHCG VCSELs with threshold current below 1 mA and optical output power exceeding 1.3 mW. We observe room temperature bias current dependent mode emission for example single mode wavelength tuning ranges up to 12 nm.
The common understanding of laser operation is based on the non-equilibrium balance between the optical gain and the losses of the device, resulting in the stimulated emission of light above critical pumping threshold. In this contribution, we demonstrate that a broad-area VCSEL can operate in a state close to thermal equilibrium, enabling the Bose-Einstein condensation of photons. We observe condensation to the fundamental optical mode of the 23 µm-diameter device, followed by a thermalised distribution of photons in higher-order modes. Moreover, we extracted experimentally the thermodynamic properties of the photon gas and found that it closely follows the equation of state of a 2D boson gas in thermal equilibrium. This work offers a novel avenue for collective quantum phenomena in a well-established VCSEL platform.
We present a novel optical sensor platform designed for the detection of medical biomarkers. The sensor operates by utilizing reflection variation resulting from the modification of Fano resonance conditions. By fabricating one- and two-dimensional subwavelength quasi-periodic structures made of polymer and coated with an inorganic layer, we enable the functionality of the sensor, ultimately leading to increased sensitivity and detection threshold. The development of the sensor’s platform involves a multi-step process. The detection mechanism primarily relies on the optical response of the biosensor. The presence of analytes induces a spectral shift of the Fano resonance, which is caused by the modification of the biolayer thickness. This optical sensor platform holds significant potential for the detection of a variety of medical biomarkers, including analytes related to various pathogenes, cancer biomarkers, and others.
Monolithic subwavelength gratings integrated with metal (metalMHCG) enable nearly total transmission of light and can be fabricated with common semiconductor materials, however, they require a very high-aspect ratio between height and period of the metalMHCG stripes which is technologically challenging. This study aims the optimization of metalMHCG fabrication procedure by plasma etching taking into account the influence of process gas flow, their composition, pressure, power, and temperature on the wall shape of metaMHCG, etch rate, and etch selectivity. In the result, metalMHCG with high-aspect ratio and dimensions enabling nearly total transmission are fabricated.
The design of transparent conductive electrodes (TCEs) for optoelectronic devices requires a trade-off between high conductivity or transmittivity, limiting their efficiency. This paper demonstrates a novel approach to fabricating TCEs: a monolithic GaAs high contrast grating integrated with metal (metalMHCG). The technology and influence of fabricated different configurations of metalMHCG on the optical parameters will be shown. We will demonstrate above 90% absolute transmittiance of unpolarized light, resulting in 130% transmittance relative to plain GaAs substrate. Despite record high transmittance, the sheet resistance of the metalMHCG is several times lower than any other TCE, ranging from 0.5 to 1 OhmSq−1.
Recently, we presented the idea of a single-element gas detector based on a VCSEL, in which the top mirror is realised as subwavelength grating (SWG). The presence of gas in the vicinity of the grating causes a change in its reflectivity, which leads to a change in the quality factor of the laser cavity. We investigate the possibility of a realisation of a single-element detector based on the SWG VCSEL, in which a Fano-resonance occurs in the SWG. We analyse the performance of such a detector based on the example of an antimonide VCSEL designed as an ethane detector.
We introduce an inverted refractive-index-contrast grating (ICG) that is a compact alternative to DBRs. In ICG a subwavelength grating made of a low refractive index material is implemented on a high refractive index cladding. We experimentally demonstrate high reflectivity of proof-of-concept ICG fabricated by 3D microprinting, in which IP-Dip photoresist grating is deposited on silicon cladding. We also show that the ICG provides nearly total optical power reflectance whenever the refractive index of the grating exceeds 1.75, irrespective of the refractive index of the cladding.
Two-dimensional hexagonal VCSEL arrays with up to 37 VCSELs per array and emitting at 940 nm to 1020 nm are produced on GaAs substrates. Arrays with variable oxide aperture diameters and new processing geometries, with a focus on optimizing the tradeoffs in optical output power, bandwidth, power conversion efficiency, and emitted far field pattern for applications in optical wireless communications are characterized and compared. Standard on wafer probing and packaged array tests are performed including terrestrial free space measurements demonstrating the viability of the core VCSEL array technology for fifth, sixth, and next generation optical wireless systems.
The key component of a quantum cascade vertical cavity surface emitting laser (QC VCSEL) is a monolithic high-contrast grating (MHCG) that replaces one of the distributed Bragg mirrors (DBR). The grating induces the polarization component necessary to stimulated emission in quantum cascade active regions embedded in MHCG. The complex electrical and optical phenomena defining the performance of the structure depends on the grating parameters (stripes dimensions, position, thickness and doping concentrations). This work presents optimization of QC VCSELs that is aimed to achieve minimal thresholds currents in the pulse operation regime.
We present an extensive experimental analysis of two-dimensional gallium-arsenide-based VCSEL arrays considering the impact on performance of the VCSEL density (inter-VCSEL spacing and mesa diameters), the number and arrangement of VCSEL elements, and the VCSEL vertical epitaxial design. We include computer simulations that explain well the behavior and trends we observe in our experiments. We present the most efficient modifications of the lateral and vertical VCSEL arrays designs to optimize heat dissipation, optical output power scaling, and wall plug efficiency.
In this paper, the design and preparation of polymer based monolithic high-contrast grating (MHCG) structures and their Talbot self-imaging effect are presented. For the preparation of MHCG structures to IP-Dip negative photoresist material, 3D laser lithography was used. The shape and morphological properties of the prepared MHCG structure were investigated by scanning electron microscope (SEM). Finally, the highly resolved near-field scanning optical microscope (NSOM) for the vertical optical field distribution over the grating structure was used. The demonstration of the Talbot effect for different wavelengths in a diffraction and a subwavelength regime is presented theoretically and experimentally from NSOM measurements.
Quantum-cascade lasers (QCL) enable emission in a broad range of infrared radiation unavailable for convectional quantum well bipolar lasers. However in-plane geometry of QCLs hinders achieving properties required in numerous applications which are inherently possessed by vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). In proposed design of QC-VCSEL the role of top mirror and element inducing component of electric field necessary to stimulated emission in quantum cascades is served by subwavelength monolithic high-refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG) in which quantum cascade active region is embedded. This paper based on numerical analysis presents influence of QC-VCSELs configuration details on threshold currents and mode distributions.
We experimentally demonstrate that circular oxide apertures with small side deformations of large-area 980 nm VCSELs contribute to an increase in the optical output power by more than 60% and in the quantum efficiency by more than 10%. We elaborate on the physical background of this behavior and its applicability to small aperture VCSELs. We show that the efficiency of stimulated emission can be enhanced by engineering the spectral structure of the resonator. Such an approach is used already to enhance spontaneous emission,but has been left unexplored in the context of the stimulated emission of VCSELs.
Bound states in the continuum (BICs) can be observed in photonic crystal slabs embedded in low refractive index surroundings that makes challenging their realization. Here we propose a configuration implemented on a high refractive index bulk substrate with a one-dimensional grating positioned on a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR). Judiciously designed DBR reflects all diffraction orders induced by the grating entirely eliminating radiative losses. The configuration enables a high degree of design freedom facilitating the realization of very high quality factor cavities in conventional all-semiconductor technology.
To date, Bound States in the Continuum (BICs) with infinite quality (Q) factor have been observed in vertically symmetric photonic crystal slabs (PCS) sandwiched from top and bottom by low refractive index material. Such configurations are problematic in real life realization. Thus, we present numerical analysis of vertically nonsymmetric PCS, that exhibits BICs when specific conditions are met. We demonstrate that ~10% refractive index contrast between PCS and substrate enables BICs, which is achievable by all-semiconductor configurations. We also present Q-factor analysis of finite size semiconductor-based electrically driven devices exploiting BICs and configurations integrated with metals.
We present the nonlinear coupled-mode theory for anisotropic microcavity lasers, the birefringent spin-lasers in particular. The modeling technique is based on the decomposition of Maxwell-Bloch equations in a properly-chosen vectorial basis, imprinting all the important information about cavity geometry, gain medium and local anisotropies into the coefficients of coupled-mode equations. The formalism is applied to spin-lasers with high-contrast gratings, in which the interplay of spin dynamics and cavity birefringence offers new possibilities for near-future data-transfer technologies. The model can be used to investigate the effects of spin modulation and grating parameters on dynamical performance of realistic grating-based spin-laser. Moreover, it is used to derive the extended spin-flip model. We show, that the currently-used spin-flip model requires the corrections in order to describe the grating-based spin-VCSELs with extremely large frequency splitting.
Monolithic High Contrast Gratings (MHCGs) are a special type of high-contrast grating (HCGs). In MHCGs, the stripes and the substrate on which they are implemented are made of the same material. MHCGs provide up to 100% power reflectance and thus are expected to find numerous applications in modern optoelectronics. We present thorough experimental analysis of spectral properties of GaAs MHCG mirrors designed at the wavelength of 1000 nm. Our results show that MHCG mirrors can be high-reflectivity mirrors as well as efficient polarizer and their properties can be modified by variation of lateral parameters of MHCG stripes.
We experimentally demonstrate and elucidate by numerical simulations that breaking circular symmetry of large apertures of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) significantly enhances their emission properties by increasing the optical density of states. Specifically, deformed shapes of circular oxide apertures of VCSELs enhance stimulated emission and suppress undesired non-radiative recombination contributing to an increase in output optical output power of more than 60% and in quantum efficiency of more than 10%. Our example deformed VCSEL structures demonstrate that the optical density of states appears to be of high importance for conventional optoelectronic devices in accordance to the predictions of quantum electrodynamics theory.
Here we present how the monolithic high contrast grating (MHCG) mirror focuses light. The studied grating has a shape of a square with 300 micrometers side. The light focuses along one of the sides of the square. As a light source in our experiment we use a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser that emits 980 nm. In our setup the light shines from above and the grating is on the bottom of the substrate. Based on numerous images taken by a camera attached to an optical microscope we generated a movie showing how the light intensity changes as a function of height above the grating. The FWHM at the focal point is around 5 micrometers and is observed around 200 micrometers above the top surface of the substrate. The measured focal length is in perfect agreement with the simulated data. Moreover, the light intensity at the focal point is more than 10 times larger as compared to the light intensity reflected by Au mirror reference.
The project (POIR.04.04.00-00-4358/17) is financed by FNP
We propose a grating that design is inverted with respect to a design of conventional high-contrast grating (HCG) in which low refractive index grating is implemented on high refractive index cladding. We show that inverted HCG can achieve power reflectance of nearly 100% even if the refractive index of the grating is as low as 1.8. Inverted HCG facilitates implementation of highly reflecting mirrors composed of etched SiN, HfO or 3D micro-printed IP-Dip on semiconductors such as GaAs that processing is less technologically demanding with respect to processing of HCGs or monolithic HCGs.
Monolithic high contrast grating (MHCG) is a particular type of a grating where both substrate and grating bars are made of the same material, in our case this is GaAs.
Here we present the numerical simulations of GaAs-based planar focusing MHCG mirrors. In particular we compare the dependence of their reflectivity and the maximum intensity of the reflected light at the focal point with conventional parabolic reflectors of the same size and identical focal lengths. Our study is performed for both TE and TM polarizations. Moreover, we analyze the influence of geometrical imperfections (i.e. local disturbance of the height, period or fill factor of the grating) on the focusing properties of the grating mirrors.
The project (POIR.04.04.00-00-4358/17) is carried out within the HOMING programme of the Foundation for Polish Science co-financed by the European Union under the European Regional Development Fund.
High contrast gratings (HCGs) are diffraction gratings whose period is less than the wavelength of light, made of a material with a high refractive index. Monolithic HCGs (MHCGs) are made of the same material as the cladding. They can be made of almost any material used in optoelectronics. We show experimentally and via simulations that shaping the cross-section of the MHCG stripes enables very broad high reflection spectrum.
Transparent electrodes implemented on semiconductors are essential components of optoelectronic devices, however, overcoming Fresnel limit and approaching perfect optical transmission together with high electrical conductivity are still a challenge. In this talk, by numerical simulations, we demonstrate a simple polarization-independent mechanism of infrared light funneling through subwavelength one-dimensional metal grating electrode integrated with monolithic high-contrast grating (MHCG). We show optical transmission of 97% through the electrode implemented at the interface between air and high refractive index semiconductor for radiation from broad infrared spectrum and revealing excellent electrical properties determined by sheet resistance below 1 Ohm/Sq.
Subwavelength one-dimensional gratings (SOGs) enable high quality factor (Q) Fano resonance, which yield significant advantages for integrated photonics applications. They are realized as high refractive index membranes suspended in air, or placed on low refractive index insulators. It was not yet analyzed whether it is possible to obtain high-Q in structures where refractive index contrast between membrane and cladding is smaller than 1. With the aid of numerical simulations we demonstrate high-Q resonance occurring for refractive index contrast between membrane and cladding as small as 0.5, allowing the realization of monolithically integrated semiconductor devices.
Transparent electrodes are essential components of optoelectronic devices, however, increasing requirements with respect to transmission at a level approaching 100% and sheet resistance below 1 Sq-1 are still a challenge. In this talk, we show that monolithic deep-subwavelength grating integrated with metal enables to reach those requirements for broad spectrum of polarized light. It facilitates injection of very high current densities exceeding 20 kA cm-2 not causing noticeable heat generation that meets the requirements of the most demanding optoelectronic devices such as semiconductor lasers.
We design and process more than 100 different 980 nm MHCG mirror designs, to determine optimal parameters for the use of the MHCGs as mirrors for VCSELs. We present measured power reflectance spectra and compare the results to our with numerical simulations. We discuss the impact of the actual processed geometric shape of the MHCG stripes on the measured power reflectance of the MHCGs..
We show our latest results on electrically-driven VCSELs incorporating a monolithic high contrast grating (MHCG) mirror. Via optimized processing techniques we achieve a 3-fold improvement in threshold current and optical output power and a 2-fold improvement in the small-signal modulation bandwidth frequency with respect to the first generation of our MHCG VCSELs.
980 nm VCSELs with different numbers of top dielectric DBR periods added to a 5.5-period top semiconductor DBR and with various oxide aperture diameters are investigated to determine the impact of the added dielectric DBR’s impact on the static and dynamic properties of the VCSELs. For VCSELs with the same oxide aperture diameter we observe smaller small-signal modulation bandwidth and lower D-factor for the VCSELs with more pairs of dielectric DBRs. For the VCSELs with 4 μm oxide aperture diameters with 8 and 12 periods of added top dielectric DBRs we measured bandwidths of 29 and 26 GHz, respectively.
High contrast gratings (HCGs) are nowadays very popular in research due to small dimensions and their highly reflective or transmissive properties. By proper alignment of HCG bars they may become focusing reflectors or lenses. Here we present simulations of GaAs-based planar focusing reflectors realized by monolithic HCGs. We present how to design focusing reflectors and discuss how to tune their reflectivity.
High contrast gratings (HCGs) are an attractive alternative to distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) as highly reflective mirrors for VCSELs. In our previous work we proposed the use of monolithic HCGs (MHCGs) to reduce the vertical thickness and simplify the epitaxial structure of VCSELs. In this work we discuss the optimization and fabrication of MHCGs. We also analyze the impact of processing imperfections on the power reflectance of MHCGs.
Presently quantum-cascade (QC) lasers enable emission at the wavelengths ranging from infrared to terahertz making them ideal light source for the distant detection of harmful gases and free-space optical communication. In those applications, requirements for the lasers include: narrow, single-fundamental-mode operation, low-divergent emitted beam, low threshold current and high speed modulation. Those properties are inherently owned by vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). However, when a QC is embedded into conventional vertical cavity, stimulated emission is impossible, because of the absence of the vertical electromagnetic wave component, which makes fundamentally impossible fabrication of QC VCSELs in their conventional design.
We propose a design of QC VCSEL in which top DBR mirror is replaced with a monolithic high-refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG). QCs are embedded within the MHCG stripes where the vertical component of the electromagnetic field is induced, enabling stimulated emission from the QCs.
Using a three-dimensional, fully vectorial optical model combined with an electrical model and gain model we discuss the distribution of the optical field, threshold current, emitted optical power and wall-plug efficiency of a 9 micro m AlInAs/InGaAs/InP QC VCSEL. Our anticipation shows that threshold current of QC VCSELs can be as low as 0.09 mA and the wall-plug efficiency at the level of 4%. We consider methods of current injection to active regions as well as methods of current and optical confinement.
The fabrication possibility of QC VCSELs opens new perspectives for merging the advantages of VCSELs with those of QCLs.
Fabrication of approx. 3 THz Al0.15Ga0.85As/GaAs QCLs grown by Molecular Beam Epitaxy equipped with Ta/Cu or Ti/Cu waveguide claddings will be presented.
Our previous studies showed that copper layers as the waveguide claddings are most promising in THz QCLs technology. The theoretical predictions showed that lasers with Ti/Cu or Ta/Cu claddings (where Ti and Ta play the role of diffusion barriers and improve adhesion) show the smallest waveguide losses when compared with other metals. The main important issue of the presentation will be the wafer bonding of the QCL active region and GaAs receptor wafer. We will compare the results of ex-situ and in-situ bonding technology. The structures were tested by optical microscopy, atomic force microscopy (AFM), scanning electron microscopy (SEM), energy-dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDXS). Our studies show that it was necessary to apply at least 5 nm-thick diffusion-barrier layers, as well as to keep all of the process temperatures below 400C in order to ensure the barrier tightness. The next important issue was control of composition of metallic claddings, in order to provide the control of the refractive index profiles of the claddings.
The ridge structure lasers were fabricated with ridge width in the range 100 – 140 µm, formed by dry plasma etching in BCl3/Cl2/Ar mixture in ICP RIE system.
The lasers operated with threshold current densities of approx. 1.2 kA/cm2 at 77 K and the Tmax = 130 K, when fed by 100-300 ns current pulses supplied with 0.3-1 kHz repetition frequencies.
*This research is supported by The National Centre for Research and Development (bilateral cooperation, project no. 1/POLTUR-1/2016) and TUBITAK (Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey) project number 215E113.
Since the very first demonstration of a vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) incorporating subwavelength high refractive index contrast grating (HCG) membrane mirror in 2007 by the group of Prof. Chang-Hasnain, numerous research groups around the world have presented devices based on the same concept emitting at wavelengths from ~400 to 1550 nm manufactured in gallium nitride (GaN), gallium arsenide (GaAs) and indium phosphide (InP) material systems. On one hand, an open access to a VCSEL cavity through an air gap combined with a very low inertia of an HCG mirror opened a way for a large range of emission wavelengths in MEMS tunable VCSELs. On the other hand, an air gap in a cavity generally hinders heat and current flow, while the potentially rather fragile HCG membrane is prone to mechanical instability. We present electrically-injected VCSELs incorporating monolithic HCG (MHCG) mirrors. An MHCG mirror being a special case of an HCG mirror, keeps the extraordinary features of an HCG such as scalability with wavelength, ultra-low thickness and very large power reflectance, but doesn't have to be surrounded by a low refractive index material and hence can be monolithically integrated with an all-semiconductor VCSEL cavity. We present an extensive analysis of the impact of the MHCG parameters on the modal properties and thermal stability of single- and double-mode devices, with various oxide apertures. We additionally compare MHCG VCSELs and generic distributed Bragg reflector VCSELs in terms of modal properties and temperature stability based on measured data and the results of computer simulations.
A physical structure constructed from stripes of a material with high refractive index that are separated with a low refractive index medium is called a high contrast grating (HCG). Here we present the simulations of long focal-length GaAs-based planar focusing monolithic HCG reflectors designed for 980 nm. We discuss how the focal spot size depends on the reflector size and how it is possible to improve the maximum value of the electric field intensity distribution.
Quantum-cascade vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (QC VCSELs) [1] combine features
of VCSELs in respect of low threshold current, high quality of output beam, possible high speed modulation and fabrication of two dimensional phase-coupled arrays and quantum cascade lasers (QCLs) due to their emission in a broad range of infrared radiation up to about 100 m.
In those structures vertical resonance and stimulated emission of photons is possible due to embedding QCs in the stripes of a monolithic high-refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG). Unipolar QCs provide flexibility in the number of the active regions used in the structure, leading to designs with distributed active regions enabling efficient stimulated emission. The expected high performance of QC VCSELs relies on sophisticated designing of MHCG and active regions which takes into account distributions of the QC VCSEL modes. Spatial distributions of modes are highly unintuitive and anticipation of them requires the use of numerical methods solving fully vectorial Maxwell eigenvalue problem.
In this article, we present the principles of QC VCSELs designing illustrated by examples of optimization of a structure emitting at the wavelength of 9 µm. Particularly, we demonstrate optimization of the MHCGs, the resonant cavities and the numbers of active regions in QC VCSELs. In this contribution, optimal designs with respect to minimal threshold current and maximal output power are presented.
[1] T. Czyszanowski: Quantum Cascade Vertical Cavity Surface Emitting Laser, IEEE Photon. Technol. Lett. vol.29, pp. 351-354, 2018
Monolithically grown, electrically-injected VCSELs of a generic design - a short cavity, sandwiched between two distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) - can only be realized easily in a gallium arsenide (GaAs) material system which restricts the emission wavelength to ~600 - 1100 nm range. The smartphones market and emerging applications such as LIDAR (light detection and ranging), free space communication and face recognition create a demand for VCSELs emitting outside of this range. We demonstrate electrically-injected VCSELs incorporating a monolithic high contrast grating (MHCG) - a special case of a subwavelength high contrast grating mirror (HCG). MHCG can be made of most of the common materials used in optoelectronics and provides reflectivity close to 100% at a wavelength of interest in range from ultraviolet to infrared. In contrast to the HCG, the MHCG doesn't have to be surrounded by a low refractive index material and hence, can be monolithically integrated with the rest of the VCSEL cavity. In our design the greater part of the top DBR is substituted by an MHCG mirror which reduces the amount of required material and growth time by about 20%. We show continuous wave emission around 980 nm up to 75 °C ambient temperature. Our devices are quasi-single- and double-mode from threshold to rollover for 13.5 μm and 16.5 μm oxide aperture diameters respectively. Our MHCG VCSEL concept can be produced using material systems where lattice-matched and high reflectivity DBRs are not available to create devices emitting at wavelengths from ultraviolet to infrared.
A new structure of semiconductor lasers called the quantum-cascade vertical-cavity surface emitting laser (QC VCSEL) is proposed in the present paper. A structure of the QC VCSEL is a cross of the quantum-cascade laser (QCL) and the vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL). The QC VCSEL is expected to demonstrate important advantages of laser emission of both the QCL and the VCSEL without their drawbacks. In the QC VCSEL, the monolithic highcontrast grating (MHCG) structure is applied to cope with the fundamental requirement of the polarization direction of the electro-magnetic radiation perpendicular to the quantum cascade (QC) necessary to initiate within it the stimulated emission. The QC VCSEL structure recommended in the present paper is a result of the advanced modeling with the aid of our comprehensive self-consistent optical-electrical model.
In this paper, we present a novel design of a nitride-based VCSEL emitting at 414 nm and perform numerical analysis of optical, electrical and thermal phenomena. The bottom mirror of the laser is a Al(In)N/GaN DBR (Distributed Bragg Reflector), whereas the top mirror is realized as a semiconductor-metal subwavelength-grating, etched in GaN with silver stripes deposited between the stripes of the semiconductor grating. In this monolithic structure simulations show a uniform active-region current density on the level of 5.5 kA/cm2 for the apertures as large as 10 μm. In the case of a broader apertures, e.g. 40 μm, we showed that, assuming a homogeneous current injection at the level of 5.5 kA/cm2 , the temperature inside the laser should not exceed 360 K, which gives promise to improve thermal management by uniformisation of the current injection.
III-N-based edge-emitting lasers suffer from low refractive index contrast between GaN, AlGaN and InGaN layers, conventionally used in their epitaxial structures. This issue becomes more severe with an increase in wavelength at which those devices operate when tuning from blue-violet to real blue and green light. To overcome this issue and to increase the refractive index contrast other materials must be employed within the epitaxial structures replacing the standard nitride layers with materials with lower refractive index. We demonstrate results of effective-index numerical calculations performed for the state-of-the-art semipolar real blue (471 nm) and green (518 nm) edge-emitting lasers with structural modifications that include ITO, AlInN, plasmonic GaN:Ge and nanoporous GaN layers. Such solutions are extensively investigated for III-N-based EELs operating in blue-violet region but only separately. Using combination of these solutions we managed to increase optical confinement factor over twice in blue- and over 3.5-times in green-EELs.
We propose a novel optical sensing system based on one device that both emits and detects light consisting of a verticalcavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) incorporating an high contrast grating (HCG) as a top mirror. Since HCGs can be very sensitive to the optical properties of surrounding media, they can be used to detect gases and liquid. The presence of a gas or a liquid around an HCG mirror causes changes of the power reflectance of the mirror, which corresponds to changes of the VCSEL’s cavity quality factor and current-voltage characteristic. By observation of the current-voltage characteristic we can collect information about the medium around the HCG. In this paper we investigate how the properties of the HCG mirror depend on the refractive index of the HCG surroundings. We present results of a computer simulation performed with a three-dimensional fully vectorial model. We consider silicon HCGs on silica and designed for a 1300 nm VCSEL emission wavelength. We demonstrate that our approach can be applied to other wavelengths and material systems.
This paper shows the possibility of stimulated emission in quantum cascades (QC) embedded in a vertical cavity and proposes a design for the first quantum-cascade vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (QC VCSEL). In the proposed design, the top VCSEL mirror is a monolithic high-refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG), which serves as both an optical coupler and as the region in which the vertical component of the electrical field is induced, enabling stimulating emission from the quantum cascades. Using a three-dimensional, fully vectorial optical model, a stand-alone MHCG is analysed in terms of its possible use as a QC VCSEL mirror. The distribution of the optical field and threshold gain in VCSELs with QC embedded in MHCG are also simulated.
We reduce the epitaxial design complexity of our conventional single-cavity oxide-aperture vertical-cavity surfaceemitting lasers (VCSELs) to reduce manufacturing costs while still meeting our internal 980 nanometer VCSEL performance goals via simplicity-in-design principles. We achieve maximum static single-mode optical output powers exceeding 4 milliwatts with small-signal modulation bandwidths exceeding 30 gigahertz at an ambient temperature of about 25 degrees Celsius for VCSELs with an oxide-aperture diameter of about 4 micrometers. Neighbor VCSELs with oxide-aperture diameters above 15 micrometers have maximum room temperature multiple-mode optical output powers of about 20 milliwatts with small-signal modulation bandwidths exceeding 20 gigahertz. The performance of our conventional oxide-confined 980 nanometer simplicity VCSELs exceeds the performance of our previously-reported and more complex 980 nanometer VCSEL epitaxial designs where we previously achieved maximum small-signal modulation bandwidths of about 26 gigahertz with oxide-aperture diameters of about 4 to 6 micrometers.
Here we investigate the influence of the p- and n-oxide-aperture radii in all-semiconductor GaAs-based verticalcavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs), designed for 980 nm, on the modulation time constant (τ). Our analysis shows that the minimum value of τ is obtained if the oxide layers on both sides of the junction have identical depths. The simulations of the number of oxide layers on both p- and n-type sides reveal that double p- and n-oxidations are the most effective in the reduction of the modulation time constant as compared to single oxide layers.
Conditions of fabrication of first-order distributed-feedback surface gratings designed for single-mode Al0.45Ga0.55As/GaAs quantum cascades lasers with the emission wavelength of about 10 μm are presented. The 1-μm-deep rectangular-shaped gratings with the period of about 1.55 μm and duty cycle in the range of 65% to 71% made by the standard photolithography are demonstrated. The wavenumber difference of about 7 cm−1 at 77 K is observed for the radiation emitted by lasers fabricated from the same epitaxial structure with ridge widths in the range of 15 to 25 μm. Moreover, the emission wavelength of the lasers could be tuned with temperature at a rate of 1 nm/K in the temperature range of 77 to 120 K. The full width at half maximum of the emitted spectra is ∼0.4 cm−1.
We propose semiconductor-metal subwavelength grating (SMSG) which can be implemented as VCSEL mirror. Such new type of SMSG plays a double role of the electric contact and mirror simultaneously. It facilitates high optical power reflectance, perfectly vertical current injection. Such construction eliminates the inbuilt current confinement and allows scaling of emitted power by simple variation of SMSG spatial dimensions. To give the credibility to proposed design we perform numerical analysis of VCSEL with SMSG using fully vectorial optical model. We discuss properties of the proposed design realized in arsenide-based material configuration.
Conditions of fabrication of first order distributed-feedback surface gratings designed for single-mode Al0.45Ga0.55As/GaAs quantum cascades lasers with the emission wavelength of about 10μm are presented. The 1 μm-deep rectangular-shaped gratings with the period of about 1.55 μm and duty cycle in the range of 65-71% made by the standard photolithography are demonstrated. The wavenumber difference of about 7 cm-1 at 77 K is observed for the radiation emitted by lasers fabricated from the same epitaxial structure with ridge widths in the range of 15-25 μm. Moreover, the emission wavelength of the lasers could be tuned with temperature at a rate of 1 nm/K in the temperature range of 77-120 K. The full width at half maximum of the emitted spectra is ~ 0.4 cm-1.
We present results of computer simulations of vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs) using novel, highreflectivity monolithic high refractive-index contrast grating (MHCG) mirrors and their more advanced version, partially covered by a thin metal layer - metallic MHCG (mMHCG) mirrors. The first experimental realization of this new class of mirrors is presented and discussed. We show that the metal layer does not deteriorate the high reflectivity of an mMHCG mirror, but in contrary, is a crucial element which allows high reflectivity and additionally opens a way for a more efficient electrical pumping of a VCSEL. Comparison of results of thermal-electrical-carrier-gain self-consistent simulations of both MHCG- and mMHCG-based VCSELs is presented and discussed. It is shown that using mHCG mirror as a top mirror of a VCSEL improves electrical characteristics and greatly decreases the differential resistance of the device.
This paper proposes a design for the monolithic high-contrast mirror designed for infrared radiation. We use a fully vectorial model to search for the construction parameters of semiconductor monolithic high-contrast grating (MHCG) mirror providing maximal power reflectance. Such mirror can play a role of optical coupler, being alternative for distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs). DBRs for mid- and long-wavelength infrared radiation are technologically highly demanding in terms of uniform quarter-wavelength layers control. Our results comprise a complete image of possible highly reflecting MHCG mirror constructions for potential use in optoelectronic infrared devices and systems.
High Contrast Gratings (HCGs) become an attractive alternative for Distributed Bragg Reflectors (DBRs) used as high reflecting mirrors for VCSELs. In this paper we propose to implement HCG or monolithic HCG as a top mirror of the 1650nm InP-based VCSEL intended for use as a methane sensing device. Its unique feature is related to the fact that light taking part in the resonance can be accessed without opening the laser cavity due to the slow light phenomenon which occurs in HCG. Particular designs of HCGs allow to concentrate significant part of the mode between the HCG stripes. In such constructions the presence of the substance in the vicinity of the HCG which interacts with light resonating in the laser will change its emission properties. This enables sensing absorption or change to the refractive index in proximity of the laser based on the emission parameters of the laser. We present a numerical analysis of 1650nm MHCG and HCG mirrors based on fully vectorial optical model. We found optimal parameters of HCGs and MHCGs to detect absorption and refractive index variations in the vicinity of the gratings, based on changes in power reflectance of analysed mirrors. Additionally we consider HCG and MHCG constructions which allow for broad wavelength tuning by the change of the refractive index of substance surrounding mirror.
We present experimental results showing alternating lasing and non-lasing regions for the short-wavelength longitudinal mode in a GaAs-based 850 nm coupled-cavity vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (CC-VCSEL). These regions are situated between the laser threshold and roll-off for this mode. The analyzed structure consists of two identical AlGaAs cavities with GaAs quantum wells, separated with 11.5 pairs of middle DBR. The current apertures are realized by ion-implantation for the top cavity and selective oxidation for the bottom cavity. We then perform fully-vectorial three-dimensional cold-cavity optical simulations to theoretically investigate optical density radial and on-optical-axis profiles of the first order transverse modes corresponding to the two longitudinal modes. We show that the short-wavelength fundamental mode λS-LP01 is subject to periodic changes of its optical field distribution when changing the oxide aperture radius, which can lead to weaker resonance of the short-wavelength LP01 mode within the coupled cavity structure.
Monolithic High refractive index Contrast Grating (MHCG) allows several-fold size reduction of epitaxial structure of VCSEL and facilitates VCSEL fabrication in all photonic material systems. MHCGs can be fabricated of material which refractive index is higher than 1.75 without the need of the combination of low and high refractive index materials. MHCGs have a great application potential in optoelectronic devices, especially in phosphide- and nitride-based VCSELs, which suffer from the lack of efficient monolithically integrated DBR mirrors. MHCGs can simplify the construction of VCSELs, reducing their epitaxial design to monolithic wafer with carrier confinement and active region inside and etched stripes on both surfaces in post processing. In this paper we present results of numerical analysis of MHCGs as a high reflective mirrors for broad range of refractive indices that corresponds to plethora of materials typically used in optoelectronics. Our calculations base on a three-dimensional, fully vectorial optical model. We investigate the reflectance of the MHCG mirrors of different design as the function of the refractive index and we show the optimal geometrical parameters of MHCG enabling nearly 100% reflectance and broad reflection stop-band. We show that MHCG can be designed based on most of semiconductors materials and for any incident light wavelength from optical spectrum.
Conventional High-index Contrast Gratings (HCG) consist of periodically distributed high refractive index stripes surrounded by low index media. Practically, such low/high index stack can be fabricated in several ways however low refractive index layers are electrical insulators of poor thermal conductivities. Monolithic High-index Contrast Gratings (MHCGs) overcome those limitations since they can be implemented in any material with a real refractive index larger than 1.75 without the need of the combination of low and high refractive index materials. The freedom of use of various materials allows to provide more efficient current injection and better heat flow through the mirror, in contrary to the conventional HCGs. MHCGs can simplify the construction of VCSELs, reducing their epitaxial design to monolithic wafer with carrier confinement and active region inside and etched stripes on both surfaces in post processing. We present numerical analysis of MHCGs using a three-dimensional, fully vectorial optical model. We investigate possible designs of MHCGs using multidimensional optimization of grating parameters for different refractive indices.
This paper reports on numerical analysis of longitudinal mode discrimination in coupled-cavity AlInAs/InGaAs/InP
quantum cascade lasers. Using a three dimensional, self-consistent model of physical phenomena in edge emitting laser
we performed exhaustive analysis of geometrical parameters of CC QCL on spectral characteristics. We discuss the
enhancement of the single mode operation in multi-section designs concerning variable dimensions of sections and air
gaps between sections and provide designing guidelines assuring single-mode operation. We also show impact of
independent current tuning of laser sections inducing Stark effect and heating as additional elements enhancing single
mode operation.
In this paper we present optical design and simulation results of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) that
incorporate monolithic subwavelength high refractive-index-contrast grating (MHCG) mirrors - a new variety of HCG
mirror that is composed of high index material surrounded only on one side by low index material. We show the impact
of an MHCG mirror on the performance of 980 nm VCSELs designed for high bit rate and energy-efficient optical data
communications. In our design, all or part of the all-semiconductor top coupling distributed Bragg reflector mirror is
replaced by an undoped gallium-arsenide MHCG. We show how the optical field intensity distribution of the VCSEL’s
fundamental mode is controlled by the combination of the number of residual distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) mirror
periods and the physical design of the topmost gallium-arsenide MHCG. Additionally, we numerically investigate the
confinement factors of our VCSELs and show that this parameter for the MHCG DBR VCSELs may only be properly
determined in two or three dimensions due to the periodic nature of the grating mirror.
In the talk we show the process of modeling complete physical properties of VCSELs and we present a step-by-step development of its complete multi-physics model, gradually improving its accuracy. Then we introduce high contrast gratings to the VCSEL design, which strongly complicates its optical modeling, making the comprehensive multi-physics VCSEL simulation a challenging task. We show, however, that a proper choice of a self-consistent simulation algorithm can still make such a simulation a feasible one, which is necessary for an efficient optimization of the laser prior to its costly manufacturing.
In this paper we present the simulation results of an oxide-confined, InGaAs/GaAs based vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser with three different configurations of the oxide apertures. We analyze the impact of the number and position of oxide layers on the carrier distribution in the laser's active region, distribution of the optical modes, and modulation properties.
Distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) are typically used as the highly reflecting mirrors of vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs). In order to provide optical field confinement, oxide apertures are often incorporated in the process of the selective wet oxidation of high aluminum-content DBR layers. This technology has some potential drawbacks such as difficulty in controlling the uniformity of the oxide aperture diameters across a large-diameter (≥ 6 inch) production wafers, high DBR series resistance especially for small diameters below about 5 μm despite elaborate grading and doping schemes, free carrier absorption at longer emission wavelengths in the p-doped DBRs, reduced reliability for oxide apertures placed close to the quantum wells, and low thermal conductivity for transporting heat away from the active region. A prospective alternative mirror is a high refractive index contrast grating (HCG) monolithically integrated with the VCSEL cavity. Two HCG mirrors potentially offer a very compact and simplified VCSEL design although the problems of resistance, heat dissipation, and reliability are not completely solved. We present an analysis of a double HCG 980 nm GaAs-based ultra-thin VCSEL. We analyze the optical confinement of such a structure with a total optical thickness is ~1.0λ including the optical cavity and the two opposing and parallel HCG mirrors.
This paper presents results of computer simulation of 1D monolithic high refractive index contrast grating (MHCG) reflector also called surface grating reflector (SGR). We analyzed optical properties of the GaAs reflector designed for 980 nm wavelength with respect to the grating parameters variation. We also determined the electric field patterns after reflection from the structure in several cases of parameters variation. We show that thanks to the scalability and design simplicity, proposed design is a promising candidate for simple, next generation vertical cavity surface emitting lasers emitting from ultra-violet to infrared.
In this paper we present results of computer optical simulations of VCSEL with modified high refractive index contrast grating (HCG) as a top mirror. We consider the HCG of two different designs which determine the lateral aperture. Such HCG mirror provides selective guiding effect. We show that proper design of aperture of HCG results in almost sixfold increase in cavity Q-factor for zero order mode and a discrimination of higher order modes.
We present the optimization of the carrier injection, heat flow and optical confinement aimed at single mode operation in anti-guiding long-wavelength VCSELs and VCSEL arrays. The analyzed structure incorporates InP/AlGaInAs quantum wells within an InP cavity. The cavity is bounded by GaAs/AlGaAs DBRs. The tunnel junction is responsible for carrier funneling into the active region. The air-gap etched at the interface between cavity and top DBR provides the confinement of the lateral modes. To rigorously simulate the physical phenomena taking place in the device we use a multi-physical model, which comprises three-dimensional models of optical (Plane Wave Admittance Method), thermal and electrical (Finite Element Method) phenomena. In the analysis we investigate the influence of the size of single and multiple emitters and the distance between the emitters in the case of the VCSEL arrays. As a result, we illustrate the complex competition of the modes and determine the geometrical parameters favoring specific array modes in the considered designs and compare the designs with respect to mode discrimination.
A self-consistent model of a GaAs-based 850 nm coupled-cavity vertical-cavity surface-emitting diode laser is presented. The analyzed laser consists of two identical AlGaAs cavities with GaAs quantum wells, separated with 10 pairs of middle DBR. The current apertures are realized by ion-implantation for the top cavity and selective oxidation for the bottom. To accurately simulate the physical phenomena present in the CW regime of the analyzed device, we use a multi-physical model, which comprises self-consistent Finite Element Method (FEM) thermo-electrical model. The numerical parameters have been found by the calibration based on experimental results. We have analyzed and shown the influence of the driving voltages on the temperature distribution within the analyzed structure and current densities in both cavities.
A numerical investigation of the current injection into the active region of electrically-pumped vertical-external-cavity surface-emitting lasers (E-VECSELs) is presented. To achieve high power of emission, a broad aperture is necessary, but such geometry favors multimode operation as the result of undesired current crowding. To reduce this effect, we propose a novel approach of selectively etched tunnel junctions in the form of coaxial rings. The paper presents the optimization of this novel geometry as an efficient approach for increasing the single mode output power of such laser.
Via experimental results supported by numerical modeling we report the energy-efficiency, bit rate, and modal properties of GaAs-based 980 nm vertical cavity surface emitting lasers (VCSELs). Using our newly established Principles for the design and operation of energy-efficient VCSELs as reported in the Invited paper by Moser et al. (SPIE 9001-02 ) [1] along with our high bit rate 980 nm VCSEL epitaxial designs that include a relatively large etalonto- quantum well gain-peak wavelength detuning of about 15 nm we demonstrate record error-free (bit error ratio below 10-12) data transmission performance of 38, 40, and 42 Gbit/s at 85, 75, and 25°C, respectively. At 38 Gbit/s in a back-toback test configuration from 45 to 85°C we demonstrate a record low and highly stable dissipated energy of only ~179 to 177 fJ per transmitted bit. We conclude that our 980 nm VCSELs are especially well suited for very-short-reach and ultra-short-reach optical interconnects where the data transmission distances are about 1 m or less, and about 10 mm or less, respectively.
We present the optimization of the carrier injection, heat flow and optical confinement aimed at single mode operation in anti-guiding long-wavelength VCSEL arrays. The analyzed structure incorporates InP/AlGaInAs quantum wells within an InP cavity. The cavity is bounded by GaAs/AlGaAs DBRs. The tunnel junction is responsible for carrier funneling into the active region. The air-gap etched at the interface between cavity and top DBR provides the confinement of the lateral modes. To rigorously simulate the physical phenomena taking place in the device we use a multi-physical model, which comprises three-dimensional models of optical (Plane Wave Admittance Method), thermal and electrical (Finite Element Method) phenomena. We perform an exhaustive modal analysis of a 1x3 VCSEL arrays. In the analysis we investigate the influence of the size and the distance between the emitters. As the result we illustrate the complex competition of the modes and determine the geometrical parameters favoring specific array modes in the considered array designs.
In this paper we present results of computer optical simulations of VCSEL with modified high refractive index contrast grating (HCG) as a top mirror. We consider the HCG of two different designs which determine the lateral aperture. Such HCG mirror provides selective guiding effect. We show that proper design of aperture of HCG results in almost sixfold increase in cavity Q-factor for zero order mode and a discrimination of higher order modes.
The introduction of a photonic-crystal to the VCSEL produces single mode emission in a very broad range of applied
currents. The mechanism responsible for the discrimination of high-order modes originates from two counter-acting
phenomena:
1) the PhC introduces lateral mode confinement through a strong waveguide effect and additionally by the Bragg
reflections from a regular net of PhC holes
2) the holes of the PhC destroy the vertical periodicity of the DBR and contribute to the selective reduction in reflectivity
of the mirror. As a result, the mode which overlaps the holes of the photonic crystal leaks through and becomes
discriminated.
We present numerical analysis of the influence of parameters of photonic crystal on the wavelength of emission, modal
gain, slope efficiency, emitted power and tuning range in single mode VCSELs. We recognise several mechanisms
determining high power emission in the single mode regime, which are: selective leakage, thermal focusing, waveguide
effect induced by the photonic-crystal, gain spectrum red shift and its maximum reduction with increase of driving
currents. We show that careful design of the photonic crystal allows for 10% increase in the emitted power of a singlemode
regime and it allows for broad range of the steering currents from 5 to 50 mA. Such attributes support tuning of the
single-mode emission over the 10 nm range of the spectrum.
We report on transverse mode discrimination in long-wavelength wafer-fused vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) incorporating ring-shaped air gap patterns at the fused interface between the active region and the top distributed Bragg reflector (DBR). These 60-nm deep patterns were implemented with the aim of favoring the fundamental mode while preserving high output power. The VCSELs under consideration emit in the 1310-nm band and incorporate an AlGaInAs-based quantum well active region, a regrown circular tunnel junction and undoped GaAs/AlGaAs DBRs. A large batch of devices with varying pattern dimensions was investigated by on-wafer mapping, allowing significant statistical analysis leading to conclusions on their typical behavior. We observe experimentally a dependence of the side-mode suppression ratio on the geometrical parameters of the patterns. In particular, we identified a design that statistically increases the maximal single-mode emitted power by more than 20%. Numerical simulations of the patterned-cavity VCSELs based on our fully three dimensional electrical, thermal and optical VCSEL computational model support these observations. They show that patterns with a large inner diameter actually confine the first-order transverse mode and enhance its modal gain. In smaller devices, this mode is pushed out of the optical aperture and suffers larger losses. Optimized parameters were found numerically for enhancing the single-mode properties of the devices with negligible penalty on emitted power and threshold current.
We demonstrate the possibility of fabrication of InGaN laser diode with an extremely thin lower AlGaN cladding (200 nm) by using high electron concentration, plasmonic GaN substrate. The plasmonic substrates were fabricated by one of high-pressure methods – ammonothermal method or multi-feed-seed growth method and have an electron concentration from 5x1019 cm-3 up to 1x1020 cm-3. New plasmonic substrate devices, in spite of their extremely thin lower AlGaN cladding, showed identical properties to these manufactured with traditional, thick lower cladding design. They were characterized by identical threshold current density, slope efficiency and differential gain. Thin AlGaN devices are additionally characterized by low wafer bow and very low density of dislocations (<104 cm-2).
We present the optimization of the carrier injection, heat flow and optical confinement aimed for single mode operation.
The analyzed structure incorporates InAlGaAs quantum wells within InP cavity. The cavity is bounded by AlGaAs/GaAs
DBRs The tunnel junction is responsible for carrier funneling into the active region. The air-gap etched at the interface
between cavity and top DBR provides the confinement of the lateral modes. To rigorously simulate the physical
phenomena taking place in the device we used multi-physical model, which comprises three-dimensional models of
optical (Plane Wave Admittance Method), thermal and electrical (Finite Element Method) phenomena.
We perform the exhaustive modal analysis of the 1x3, 1x4 and 2x4 VCSEL arrays. In the analysis we investigate the
influence of the distance between emitters. The analysis is performed for broad range of injected currents from threshold
to the rollover. As the result we illustrate the complex competition of the modes, influence of the optical confinement on
structure of the modes and determine the geometrical parameters, which favor the array modes in the considered array
designs.
In the following paper a simulation of optically pumped vertical external cavity surface emitting lasers (VECSEL) with a
novel approach for the improvement of the heat management is presented. In recent VECSEL structures, it was common
to use one top diamond heat spreader in order to decrease the thermal resistance of the device by redistributing the heat
flow to the lateral regions and thus transporting heat down to the copper heat sink more efficiently. We present here
further improvement of the heat management by eliminating the bottom DBR from the heat flow path and substituting it
for a diamond with a High Contrast Grating (HCG). Hence the active region, which consists of 5 pairs of AlGaInAs
quaternary alloy quantum wells, is sandwiched between two diamond heat spreading layers.
The structure of Si HCG deposited on a diamond provides broad wavelength range in which reflectivity is close to 100%
for the emitted beam for perpendicular mode polarization with respect to the direction of the HCG trenches. The HCG
assures less than 20% reflection and near zero absorption of pumping light, hence it allows for on-axis bottom pumping
scheme and integration of the VECSEL with the pumping laser. According to the simulations 300 μm thick top diamond
heat spreader is enough to assure effective heat dissipation mechanism. Replacing the bottom DBR with the diamond
heat spreader will provide additional 10% reduction of the thermal impedance. The minimum of thermal impedance is
achieved for about 450 μm thick bottom diamond heat spreader.
Highly n-doped GaN is a material of a reduced refractive index which may substitute AlGaN as a cladding layer in
InGaN laser diodes. In this study we focus on the determination of the optical absorption and the refractive index of
GaN:O having the electron concentration between 1·1018 - 8·1019 cm-3. Though the measured absorption coefficient for
the highest doped GaN are rather high (200 cm-1) we show, using an optical mode simulation, that you can design a
InGaN laser diode operating in blue/green region with decent properties and low optical losses. We propose to use
relatively thin AlGaN interlayer to separate plasmonic GaN from the waveguide and thus to dramatically reduce the
optical losses.
1300-nm, 1550-nm and 1480-nm wavelength, optically-pumped VECSELs based on wafer-fused InAlGaAs/InPAlGaAs/
GaAs gain mirrors with intra-cavity diamond heat-spreaders demonstrate very low thermal impedance of 4
K/W. Maximum CW output of devices with5 groups of quantum wells show CW output power of 2.7 W from 180μm
apertures in both 1300-nm and 1550-nm bands. Devices with 3 groups of quantum wells emitting at 1480 nm and with
the same aperture size show CW output of 4.8 W. These devices emit a high quality beam with M² beam parameter
below 1.6 allowing reaching a coupling efficiency into a single mode fiber as high as 70 %. Maximum value of output
power of 6.6 W was reached for 1300nm wavelength devices with 290μm aperture size.
A self-consistent pulse-operation model of an InP-based 1300-nm AlInGaAs vertical-cavity surface-emitting diode laser
with filled-photonic-crystal is presented. It is shown that low threshold characteristics and strong transverse-mode
discrimination can be simultaneously achieved for optimized photonic crystal structure for broad optical apertures.
We present a new three dimensional, fully vectorial optical modeling of oxide confined as well as shallow relief vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser. Our model is based on the combination of the plane wave expansion method with the method of lines resulting in a fast and accurate computational technique. We carry out hereby a comparison between the Plane Wave Admittance Method (PWAM) and other numerical approaches for VCSEL optical modeling and show very good agreement. Furthermore, this procedure makes it possible to find optimal basic computational parameters for the PWAM in the case of
VCSELs.
In this paper we present the application of a novel fully vectorial and three-dimensional computational method for planar devices to simulation of electromagnetic modes in classical and photonic-crystal-based VCSELs. We show the mathematical basis of the method and present results of computations of a resonant wavelength, optical losses, and a threshold gain of a classical arsenide VCSEL with oxide confinement and also of a purely photonic-crystal confined one. Furthermore we analyze the analytical reduction of computational domain to two dimensions in axisymmetric geometries with cylindrical-wave expansion, discuss the mathematical problems which occurs in such coordinates and suggest a method to overcome them.
Modern communication in absolute secrecy requires creation of new intrinsically secure quantum communication channels. It is particularly necessary during the first connection between two parties establishing then in assumed unconditional security the secret cryptographic key which is supposed to be used afterwards during normal information exchanging. This new emerging field of quantum information technology is based on a new type of light sources, in which numbers of emitted photons can be carefully controlled. Especially advantageous are sources of single photons emitted at strictly predetermined moments, so called single-photon devices. Then any possible eavesdropper activity will be followed by some unavoidable disturbance which alerts both communication parties to an event. In the present paper, the Purcell effect associated with enhancement of spontaneous emission coupled to a resonator is explained, methods used to produce streams of antibunched photons are given, mechanisms applied to control carrier injection into quantum dots are shown and some possible designs of single-photon devices are presented and described. These devices are based on taking advantage of both the Purcell effect and the atom-like energy spectrum of quantum dots.
The advanced three-dimensional fully self-consistent optical-electrical-thermal-gain model of the 1.3-μm (GaIn)(NAs)/GaAs vertical-cavity surface-emitting laser (VCSEL) has been developed to simulate its room-temperature (RT) continuous-wave (CW) performance characteristics and to enable its structure optimisation. The standard GaInNAs VCSEL structure with an intracavity-contacted configuration exhibits very nonuniform current injection into its active region, whereas a uniform current injection is important in long-wavelength VCSELs for low threshold, high-efficiency and stable-mode operation. Therefore we decided to insert an additional tunnel junction within the active-region neighbourhood. The tunnel junction is shown to enhance effectively hole injection via a lateral electron current, with only a modest increase (a small penalty) in voltage drop and series resistance compared to standard devices.
Performance of various possible designs of 400-nm nitride vertical-cavity surface-emitting lasers (VCSELs) has been analysed with the aid of the advanced three-dimensional (3D) thermal-electrical-optical-gain self-consistent threshold simulation. It has been demonstrated that it is practically impossible to reach the fundamental-mode operation in nitride VCSELs of the traditional design with two ring contacts. To enhance this desired operation, uniformity of current injection into VCSEL active regions should be dramatically improved. Therefore, we focused our research on designs with tunnel junctions and/or a semitransparent contact. In particular, it has been proved that the design with two cascading active regions, two tunnel junctions and a semitransparent contact may offer the most promising room-temperature performance characteristics for both pulse and continuous-wave operation. In particular, this design offers high mode selectivity with distinct fundamental transverse mode domination. Our simulations reveal, that the thickness and localization of a semitransparent contact as well as localization of active regions and tunnel junctions are crucial for a successful construction designing.
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