KEYWORDS: Digital image correlation, Bridges, Cameras, Sensors, Structural health monitoring, 3D image processing, Optical inspection, Photography, Inspection, 3D image enhancement
Due to the aging global civil infrastructure (e.g. bridges), there is a critical need for monitoring and assessing structural integrity of large scale structures. According to the ASCE, in 2008, the average bridge in the U.S.A. was 43 years old and 161,892 bridges were structurally deficient or obsolete. Currently, bridge health is assessed primarily using qualitative visual inspection, which is not always reliable because some damage is difficult to detect, quantify visually, or is subject to human interpretation. Traditional sensors such as strain gages, and displacement sensors, have been recently used to monitor bridges. These sensors only measure at discrete points or along a line, making it difficult to detect damage that is not in the immediate vicinity of the sensor or is difficult to interpret. To address these issues, this paper investigates the use of three-dimensional (3D) digital image correlation (DIC) as a sensing approach for improved bridge structural health monitoring. 3D DIC is a non-contact, full field, optical measuring technique that uses digital cameras to measure surface geometry, displacement, and strain. It is proposed that DIC can be used for monitoring by imaging a bridge periodically and computing strain and displacement from images recorded at different dates or operating conditions. In this paper, DIC is shown to locate non-visible cracks in concrete, quantify spalling, and measure bridge deformation. These techniques are first demonstrated in the laboratory. Field measurements are also made on three full-scale bridges. This paper discusses challenges and solutions to implementing DIC on large structures in the field. The results reveal that DIC is an effective approach to monitor the integrity of large scale civil infrastructure.
KEYWORDS: Cameras, 3D image processing, Foam, 3D metrology, Mirrors, Digital cameras, Calibration, High speed cameras, Image processing, Finite element methods
Digital cameras are rapidly supplanting film, even for very high speed and ultra high-speed applications. The benefits of these cameras, particularly CMOS versions, are well appreciated. This paper describes how a pair of synchronized digital high-speed cameras can provide full-field dynamic deformation, shape and strain information, through a process known as 3D image correlation photogrammetry. The data is equivalent to thousands of non-contact x-y-z extensometers and strain rosettes, as well as instant non-contact CMM shape measurement. A typical data acquisition rate is 27,000 frames per second, with displacement accuracy on the order of 25-50 microns, and strain accuracy of 250-500 microstrain.
High-speed 3D image correlation is being used extensively at the NASA Glenn Ballistic Impact Research Lab, in support of Return to Flight activities. This leading edge work is playing an important role in validating and iterating LS-DYNA models of foam impact on reinforced carbon-carbon, including orbiter wing panel tests. The technique has also been applied to air blast effect studies and Kevlar ballistic impact testing. In these cases, full-field and time history analysis revealed the complexity of the dynamic buckling, including multiple lobes of out-of-plane and in-plane displacements, strain maxima shifts, and damping over time.
Biomechanics place huge challenges on existing measurement technologies for determining the mechanical properties of these materials, as well as just measuring the full-field displacement and strain of these materials. 3D Image Correlation Photogrammetry is proving to be a powerful tool for these measurements, providing full-field 3D measurement of the specimens under normal loadings, even at high-speed. This optical technique is independent of the material that it is measuring, providing a non-contact measurement of any material or geometry type. The results are then directly comparable to finite element models for model verification, iteration and boundary condition determination. This paper discusses the theory of the technology, and its application in deformation and strain measurement of real biomechanic applications, from tissues and organs to ligaments and bones.
KEYWORDS: 3D image processing, 3D metrology, Cameras, Photogrammetry, Actuators, 3D displays, Video, Polymers, High speed cameras, Pulsed laser operation
3D image correlation is a robust method for measuring full-field displacements and strains using a calibrated pair of video cameras. Underlying principles and benefits are reviewed, and the method is compared to both 3D ESPI and 2D image correlation. Several applications combining image correlation photogrammetry with stroboscopic illumination and/or high-speed video cameras are presented. Operational strains in ionic polymeric muscle samples and electro-restrictive actuators are determined. The use of short-duration white light pulses to study automobile tires on road wheels at speeds up to 150 miles per hour is demonstrated. Initial work measuring strains on an 18" flywheel in a spin pit at up to 35,000 rpm is described. A notched rubber dogbone sample is pulled to failure at 125% strain in 38 milliseconds, and hundreds of full-field strain maps are captured. This paper includes discussion of sample preparation methods and special lighting systems, including pulsed arc lamps and pulsed lasers. A matrix of capability using available high speed cameras is included.
Sheet metal manufacturers are under constant and increasing pressure to improve and document quality, while reducing cost. Furthermore, OEMs are shifting responsibility for quality inspections to suppliers, adding extra burdens. Exciting, shapely product designs are placing greater demands on both quality assurance and development departments. Deep drawing and other new advanced forming methods push materials to their limits. There is a new stamping quality control tool available for easy, effective and reliable determination of shape, strains and thinning. Full-field optical vision systems, based on the well-known principles of circle grid analysis and photogrammetry, provide automated analysis and quantitative color maps for every square inch of complex parts. Quality results are displayed on a 3D computer model, using the actual measured dimensions of the real part, allowing it to be viewed from any angle. One of the key features of this system is a dynamic link between the forming limit diagram and the strain/thinning color map. When a point is clicked on either display, a second crosshair automatically highlights that same point on the other display, and a detail box presents all measured and calculated quantities. Critical points can be identified at a glance so that corrective action can be taken. Examples shown include before and after die optimization, and analysis of a 1.2 meter long B-pillar stamping.
The temptation when presented with the requirement to interpret holographic interferograms of aluminum aircraft structures derived through a non-destructive testing technique is to examine the whole interferogram. Computers are renowned for their ability to process large amounts of data accurately and speedily, therefore there is a strong temptation to harness their particular powers. This is not only time-consuming and wasteful of computing resources, it is also unnecessary. However, before work can begin on interpreting an interferogram by computer the problem itself must be defined. In this particular example the interferogram is from a sample taken from one of the world's aging passenger airline fleet. The sample is from an aluminum stabilizer in which faults have been induced or have occurred during the service lifetime of the aircraft. All faults have been confirmed by destructive evaluation or by alternative techniques. Thus the problem domain is known. When a human expert examines an interferogram s/he concentrates on areas where faults are likely to occur namely, the areas immediately surrounding the stringers and frames as well as the stringers and frames themselves. The faults are typically caused through endless pressurization cycles or through corrosion. These faults have been induced to show themselves by a distinctive pattern of interference fringes across stringers and frames, where normally no fringes should be expected to occur. Therefore the human expert search concentrates on these areas, using the fringe count density or shape over the whole of the interferogram simply for comparison or control. The computer aims to emulate the human search. However, difficulties have been identified that could prove problematic for the computer that are elementary for the human brain. In our early work the sample interferograms for computer analysis have been selected because, to a human, they are uncomplicated and relatively noise-free sample in which faults are easily identified. This gives a good test case against which the computer can be compared, however the strength of the computer may finally by in interpreting holographic interferograms that are difficult for humans to interpret either though complexity or human consideration such as fatigue when hundreds either though complexity or human consideration such as fatigue when hundreds of such images are required where, for example, a large structure such as an aircraft is considered.
A method of application of pulsed holographic interferometry together with the associated hardware has been developed and applied as a non-destructive inspection (NDI) tool for application to aluminum aircraft fuselages such as those used in the present air transport fleet. A number of novel techniques are involved in the design features of the holographic camera and the method of excitation to obtain optimum conditions where any structural faults present can be made apparent. The holographic camera system has been designed to be small, portable and ruggedly designed so it is suitable for field operations in aircraft repair stations and hangars. The technique operates by the introduction of a selected single frequency vibration signal into the area undergoing test. The camera system has been designed to record both the relative and actual phase of the vibrationally induced into the structure of the fuselage undergoing excitation and NDI. Results are presented showing structural defects. A computerized technique is being developed for the analysis of the interferogram fringe maps an preliminary results are discussed.
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