Doped ZnO is one of the materials currently being considered in industrial applications as a possible
replacement for ITO as a transparent conducting oxide. The properties of doped ZnO anodes prepared at
Arkema Inc. are analyzed in 3D using high-throughput mapping tools. The 2D resistivities of the coatings
measured by 4-point probe compare well with the resistivity values calculated from the spectroscopic
ellipsometer measurements. It was found that the dependence of effective mass of doped ZnO on Hall-electron
concentration influences optically-calculated mobilities and electron concentrations. To study the
variation of the film properties along z-axis, the films are polished using mechanical planarization
technique. The electrical and crystallographic depth profiles for these films are studied by differential Hall-effect
and grazing-angle x-ray spectroscopy. The electron mobility increases continuously from the glass-film
interface (12 cm2/Vs) to the ZnO film surface (19 cm2/Vs). The electron concentration depth profile
has bell-like dependence with a maximum at 1.55 x 1021 cm-3. In addition to the increasing grain size, the
texture coefficients for the (002) reflection decrease and (103) reflection increase towards the air-film
interface. Examples of the applications of the doped ZnO anodes in the OLED structures suggest
improvement of external quantum efficiency with introduction of an Al2O3 undercoat.
We report an alternative, high-yielding synthesis for the known compound 2,4,6-tris(2′,4′-difluoro-[1,1′-biphenyl]-4-yl)-1,3,5-triazine (tris-(dFB)Tz). The energy of the lowest unoccupied molecular orbital (ELUMO) for tris-(dFB)Tz is estimated to be −3.5 eV from electrochemical measurements. The deep ELUMO of tris-(dFB)Tz affords a material with excellent electron acceptor characteristics for use in n-doped electron transport layers. Tris-(dFB)Tz shows a four order of magnitude increase in the number of carriers on doping with 8 wt. % Cs2CO3. Enhanced electron injection was also observed on doping with Cs2CO3, which eliminated the necessity for a separate LiF electron injection layer. Blue phosphorescent organic light-emitting devices (OLEDs) were fabricated using n-doped tris-(dFB)Tz electron transport layers. OLEDs with thick (700-Å) Cs2CO3-doped tris-(dFB)Tz electron transport layers had lower operating voltages than OLEDS with an undoped electron transport layer of bis(diphenylphosphoryl)dibenzothiophene (PO15), which has previously been used in low-voltage, high-efficiency OLEDs. The tris-(dFB)Tz results indicate that aromatic substituted triazines may be promising materials for use as electron acceptors in n-doped organic electronic systems.
We report the photophysical characterization, computational results, and device properties for ambipolar phosphine oxide-based host materials that were chemically functionalized to control the charge transport. We study the effects of structural modifications of phosphine oxide hosts on the charge balance in the emissive zone of organic light-emitting devices (OLEDs). Significant changes in charge transport within the emissive layer are observed upon introduction of functional groups, such as pyridine and carbazole, into the organic phosphine oxide host structure. We demonstrate that rational design of host materials allows for the control of charge balance in the emissive zone of OLEDs.
The efficiency and stability of blue organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) continue to be a primary roadblock to
developing organic solid state white lighting. For OLEDs to meet the high power conversion efficiency goal, they
will require both close to 100% internal quantum efficiency and low operating voltage in a white light emitting
device.1 It is generally accepted that such high quantum efficiency, can only be achieved with the use of
organometallic phosphor doped OLEDs. Blue OLEDs are particularly important for solid state lighting. The simplest
(and therefore likely the lowest cost) method of generating white light is to down convert part of the emission from a
blue light source with a system of external phosphors.2 A second method of generating white light requires the
superposition of the light from red, green and blue OLEDs in the correct ratio. Either of these two methods (and
indeed any method of generating white light with a high color rendering index) critically depends on a high efficiency
blue light component.3
Conductivity doping of charge transporting layers is becoming increasingly attractive for improving power efficiency in
OLEDs. However, the number of commercially available organic molecular p-dopants is limited. The electron
acceptor 2,3,5,6-tetrafluoro-7,7,8,8,-tetracyanoquinodimethane (F4-TCNQ) is the most utilized p-dopant. F4-TCNQ can
be used as a dopant for most hole transporting materials (HTM), but it is very volatile, which makes it difficult for
vacuum processing, and has a low sticking coefficient. Here we present the design of novel anchored molecular dopants
based on the TCNQ core. We first review how the reduction potential of TCNQ core is affected by substitution with
alkyl groups of different electronic properties. Electron donating groups have negative effect on the reduction potential
of the acceptor. However, attaching electron withdrawing groups such as halogens counteracts the effect of electron
donating groups. Using gas phase theoretical calculations we determined that trifluorinated TCNQ can be anchored
through a σ-coupled alkyl chain to an inert molecular anchor without sacrificing the electron affinity.
Organic light emitting devices (OLEDs) are projected to provide a
low-cost, long-lived, and efficient wide area lighting
solution if challenges in reliability, cost, and efficiency can be overcome. Development of new transparent conducting
oxides (TCOs) that do not contain indium for use as the anode in bottom-emitting OLEDs can lead to cost savings and provide longer device lifetimes. Indium-free TCOs need to meet or exceed performance targets including high
conductivity and visible light transmission, acceptable stability and, for blue or white OLEDs, a high work function to
match the deep HOMO of the hole transport material. In this work, we report results from our efforts to scale up sputter deposition on large area substrates (up to hundreds of cm2) of a
Ga-doped ZnO TCO having a composition identified
using combinatorial methods. We present the results of initial
scale-up efforts and evaluate relevant properties for these
films. Finally, we have incorporated these materials in the production of OLEDs, and show performance comparisons
between devices fabricated on the scaled-up GZO and commercial indium tin oxide (ITO). The results demonstrate that
we are able to generate substrates with the appropriate work function to reduce the operating voltage of blue
phosphorescent OLEDs compared to commercial ITO. This work
function-HOMO energy matching leads to more efficient charge injection into the device hole transport layer.
We have investigated the surface degradation of bare and sol-gel coated deuterated potassium dihydrogen phosphate (DKDP) crystals when exposed to 351-nm laser pulses in atmospheric air and nitrogen and at pressures ranging from atmospheric down to 10-5 Torr vacuum. Optical microscopy, surface topography, surface chemical analyses, 351-nm pumped photoemission maps, and photometry results have been used to characterize these samples. We report the occurrence of two potentially linked surface degradation phenomena: the development of increased photoemission and the development of unacceptable surface roughening in the region exposed to the beam in vacuum. We note no degradation for surfaces exposed in air or nitrogen at pressures exceeding 1 Torr. Diamond-turned DKDP surfaces show a ubiquitous, low-intensity photoemission signature before exposure to any laser fluence. The observed reduction of this emission signal as a function of operating pressure and accumulated laser energy when crystals are exposed to 351-nm laser pulses in air can be correlated with the removal of surface carbon.
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