Today intermediate-focus equivalent extreme ultraviolet (EUV) power of several watts is now available, and EUV lithography scanners are being considered as potential scanners for high-volume manufacturing (HVM) tools. However, for high-volume manufacturing with throughput of over 100 wafers per hour, EUV power of 350 W may be required. We review the history of EUV sources for lithography with tin as fuel. We discuss the ideal plasma for tin sources for extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL), conditions for a high conversion efficiency of 4% to 5% in 2πsr, and the existence of a repetition rate limit at around 40 kHz. We review the present status reported by EUV source suppliers and the prospects of tin laser-produced plasma as an EUV source for HVM EUVL.
We have developed an actinic full-field mask blank inspection system to detect multilayer phase defects with dark field
imaging. Using this system a non-commercial mask was inspected and real defects were detected by setting the system at
low false detection threshold. A 1.5 mm square area (containing no absorber) was inspected three times, and probabilities
of defect detection and false detection were evaluated. Of the total number detected, 81.5 % of them exhibited 100%
percent probability of detection, while 0.8 % of them indicated false detection. The same area was also inspected with a
conventional inspection system, and both inspection results then were compared. Among the defects detected, 94 % of
them could be detected only with the actinic system, while 1.1 % of them could be detected only with the conventional
laser-based inspection system. The detected defects were observed with AFM and SEM. In summary, phase defects
smaller than 100 nm could be detected only with the actinic system, while particles smaller than 200 nm could be
detected only with the conventional system.
We have developed an actinic full-field inspection system to detect multilayer phase defects with dark field imaging capabilities. With this inspection system programmed phase defects on a mask blank were observed, and their image quality was compared with that from a proof of concept (POC) tool. The maximum intensity of normalized defect signal with the inspection system is 3.1 times larger and the full width at the half maximum (FWHM) of the defect signal is 13 % narrower than those with the POC tool. And therefore, the image quality of this inspection system is considered to be superior to that of the POC tool. In the case where the defect image is captured with stage scanning using time delay integration (TDI) method, degradation of defect signals caused by stage scanning is evaluated. With a scan velocity of 1mm/s, the defect signal indicates a 19 % decrease in the maximum intensity and a 13 % extension to the FWHM as compared with those from the static mode. We believe that this degradation of defect signal is caused by the variation of scan velocity and yawing of the scan stage. The relation between defect sensitivity and scan velocity is analyzed with signal to noise ratio (SNR). As a result, a scan velocity of 1mm/s plays a role that is barely sufficient to detect a 1.5 nm-high 60 nm-wide defect with no false defect detection. Noise reduction of CCD or improvement of inspection algorithm will be required.
We have developed an actinic full-field EUV mask blank inspection tool that consists of an EUV light source, a 26X Schwarzschild optics for dark-field imaging, an EUV-sensitive backside-illuminated charge-coupled-device (BI-CCD) camera, and a mechanical mask stage with a stroke range of 160 mm. A critical illumination system is employed by setting ellipsoidal and plane mirrors to illuminate an area of mask blank that is to be inspected. Since in this setup a circular area on the mask blank with approximately 0.8 mm diameter is illuminated, a 0.5×0.5 mm2 square image area can be addressed without moving the mask stage. The inspection tool can also be operated under time delay and integration (TDI) mode by scanning the mask stage with a constant velocity. In spite of comparatively large effective pixel size of 500 nm on the mask blank, small defect-to-pixel ratio such as 0.12 for phase defect of 60 nm in width and 1.5 nm in height, was established as a measured value of defect detection sensitivity by using both static imaging mode and time-delay and integration (TDI) operation mode.
We have developed an actinic full-field inspection system to detect multilayer phase defect with dark field imaging. With
this system, programmed phase defects on a mask blank were observed. The system can detect phase defects caused by a
1.5 nm high and 60 nm wide protrusion on a multilayer surface. Background intensity and signal to background ratio
(SBR) of the observed defect images are analyzed with simulation. The background intensities were calculated with the
model that it is generated by light scattered from mask surface roughness. The result indicates that the larger outer NA
(numerical aperture) leads to an increase in the background intensity. In this correlation of NA with the background
intensity, the calculation and experimental results correspond well. The defect images were simulated using the point
spread function (PSF) of flare generated by mirror surface roughness employing Fourier technique. The SBRs of
simulated defect images corresponded well with the SBRs of the observed images. These results support the calculation
and simulation models are proper.
We are developing a multi-kHz repetition rate high-average power Ti:sapphire regenerative amplifier as a pumping laser of a laser-plasma X-ray source. With an optimally designed ring resonator with a cryogenically-cooled laser rod, the average output power of 54 W before compression was achieved when pumped by a 180-W green laser at 10 kHz repetition rate. The focusability of the output beam was better than two times of the diffraction limit and can be compressed to 82 fs. Possibility of scaling to higher output power is discussed.
The impact of mask blank surface roughness and mirror surface roughness on the defect inspection signal is presented.
The power spectrum density (PSD) of the roughness is assumed to be inversely proportional to the square of the spatial
frequency. The PSD was estimated based on the mask blank surface roughness (rms), and then the background intensity
was calculated using the PSD of the spatial frequencies between the inner and outer NA. The results indicate that the
larger outer NA leads to an increase in the background intensity, and that a mask blank roughness of 0.15 nm generates a
background intensity of 0.15 - 0.23 %. We also analyzed the effect of the mirror surface roughness on the background
intensity and on the defect signal contrast. A point spread function (PSF) of scattered light from the mirror surface was
calculated using the estimated PSD, and the defect images were simulated for the inspection optics by employing Fourier
technique. The degradation of defect images caused by the mirror roughness was calculated by using the convolution of
the PSF with the simulated images. Based on the results, it is concluded that the roughness has a large impact on the
maximum intensity of the defect signal but has little effect on the background intensity. It was also learned that the
degradation rate of the defect signal contrast is approximately proportional to the square of the mirror roughness.
The detectability of a small phase defect on a multilayer-coated mask blank was investigated by using electromagnetic simulation. When a smoothing deposition of multilayer coating is used the inspection signal from the phase defects is characterized not only by a top surface topography of the multilayer but also by bottom topography. To understand the impact of the bottom topography we first calculated the phase shift of reflected EUV light from multilayers with various bi-layer thicknesses since the smoothing effect may be equivalent to the local multilayer thickness variation. Then, we estimated the actinic inspection signal intensity from bump, pit, line, and groove defects taking into account the phase shift due to bi-layer thickness change and the phase change due to the top surface topography. Simulation results revealed that the phase shift due to the top surface topography was enhanced by smoothing deposition for both convex and concave shaped phase defects. Thus the bump defect is detected as higher bump than the actual height of top surface and the pit defect is detected as a deeper pit than the surface depth.
Back-illuminated charge-coupled devices (BI-CCD) have been characterized for the application of actinic EUVL mask blank inspection. Point spread function (PSF) of a BI-CCD is analyzed by extracting the EUV-emulating events from photon counting images of 55Fe exposure experiments. The spread of the PSF is found to be reduced by applying higher voltage to extend the depletion layer, which is consistent with the physical model of the electron diffusion in the backside region. High speed capability of the most promising BI-CCD is also tested to investigate its applicability to production-worthy high throughput inspection tools. It has been demonstrated that a clear image can be obtained at 5.6MHz clock speed which translates into the throughput of 2 hours per blank using 26x imaging optics. The readout noise at this clock speed, however, has turned out to be extremely degraded than is required to keep the required sensitivity. Potential approaches to overcome sensitivity degradation caused by the increase in the readout noise are discussed.
Technologies for materializing our cotton-cake like tin target scheme are being developed. With the scheme, we expect to achieve 4% conversion efficiency into 2π sr supported by our experimental data. In order to implement EUVL, EUV power exceeding 100 W is considered to be required to be sent to an illumination box. Large collection solid angle and high conversion efficiency are the mandatory requirements for a source for EUVL. A route to the goal is not yet clear. With our scheme, we can expect EUV exceeding 100 W at the entrance of an illuminator is obtained with a 15 kW YAG laser. Difficulties we encountered when we tried plasma production by shooting droplets of a SnO2 suspension were preparation of a long life SnO2 suspension and stable droplet generation with the suspension. In these few years our technologies are highly improved, and we are now able to supply the suspension for several hours without stop, and concentration of a suspension is now increased to as high as 40 wt %. EUV intensity dependence on concentration was studied by shooting a jet of a suspension. We found the EUV intensity saturated at around several at %, which corresponds to several tens wt%, and the EUV intensity comparable to that from a Sn plate was observed. By introducing active synchronization of laser pulses with droplets, we can now shoot droplets running at 10 kHz with a 10 Hz YAG laser with no miss shot. We are now ready to challenge formation of cotton-cake like tin target to demonstrate a very high CE.
Actinic (at-wavelength) inspection of EUV mask blanks using a dark-field imaging proved a high sensitivity for detecting multilayer defects through detecting programmed phase defects accurate to 70nm in width and 2nm in height without any detection of false defects. Characterization of the experimental actinic inspection tool is ongoing to find the ultimate sensitivity of this tool to define the detailed specification of a proto-type tool. In this paper, we present a detailed analysis of the defect signal intensity compared with AFM measurements taken from more than 20 programmed phase defects. This analysis proved that the signal intensity is mainly correlated with the volume of bumps whose sizes range from 2.8nm to 6.0nm in height and from 59nm to 86nm in width. The correlation suggests that the intensity variation within the group of the same design size reflects the actual variation of the defect size. Some natural defects other than programmed defects are also detected. The comparison of the defect signal and AFM analysis suggests that one of the detected defects is not a pure phase defect but more like an amplitude defect. The smallest natural defect had a surface height as low as 1.5nm, which can only be detected by lowering the detection threshold to the level with some statistically expected false defect counts. Current efforts to improve its detection capability while minimizing false defect detection are also discussed.
MIRAI Project has developed a novel actinic (at-wavelength) inspection tool for detecting critical multilayer defects on EUV mask blanks using a dark-field imaging and a laser-produced plasma (LPP) light source. The first milestone of proof-of-concept was successfully achieved by demonstration of programmed defect detection accurate to 70nm in width and 2nm in height without any detection of false defects. Characterization of this experimental actinic inspection tool is ongoing to define the detailed specification of a proto-type tool. One of the important factors that define the sensitivity of the inspection tool is the signal to noise ratio available from the inspection image. In this paper, characterization results of background fluctuation and through focus imaging are presented. The characterization of background fluctuation suggested that the pixel-to-pixel fluctuation by spatial fluctuation of roughness is smaller than originally assumed possibly because of the smoothing by the aberration of the imaging optics. The negative impact of the degradation of defect signal by the aberration at the best focus is relaxed due to the smoothed fluctuation of the background intensity.
We proposed an actinic (at-wavelength) EUV mask blank inspection method providing a printable phase-defect detection capability within the whole area of the mask blanks in an allowable inspection time. The inspection tool based on our method consists of optics for illuminating a mask blank with an EUV light, a mask blank stage, Schwarzschild optics for dark-field imaging, and a CCD camera. Phase-defect detection experiments were performed using a 10 Hz LPP source and with 0.2 NA imaging optics with the center obscuration NA of 0.1. Two-dimensional dark field image signal of 0.5 mmX0.5 mm area was captured by the CCD camera with 1M pixels and the phase-defects with the size down to 70 nm were successfully detected. In addition, a programmed phase defect and natural defect with 2 nm height were clearly detected. Inspection time including image capture and data processing for 0.5 mmX0.5 mm area was approximately 2 second. This is equivalent to an inspection time of 800 seconds/cm2. Inspection speed will increase by more than 10 times when combined with high power light source and high speed data acquisition. Although further optimization is needed, possibility of actinic inspection of EUV mask blanks within a practical inspection time has been demonstrated.
The development of defect-free mask blanks including inspection is one of the big challenges for the implementation of
extreme ultraviolet lithography (EUVL), especially when the introduction of EUVL is rescheduled to a later technology
node. Among others, inspection of multilayer coated mask blanks with no oversight of critical defects and with
minimal detection of false defects is a challenging issue for providing mask blanks free of defects or with thorough
characterization of any existing defects. MIRAI Project has been developing a novel actinic (at-wavelength)
inspection tool for detecting critical multilayer defects using a dark-field imaging and a laser-produced plasma (LPP)
light source, expecting better sensitivity and better correlation with printability. The first experimental set up is
completed for proof-of-concept (POC) demonstration using 20x Schwarzschild imaging optics and a backsideilluminated
CCD. An in-house LPP light source is integrated to optimally illuminate the area of interest by EUV with
a wavelength of 13.5nm. For its illuminator, a multilayer-coated elliptical mirror is used to illuminate a mask blank
with the EUV that is collected within a wide solid angle from the light source. The first EUV dark-field image is
obtained from a mask blank with programmed multilayer defects which are manufactured by locating well-defined
patterns before depositing Mo/Si multilayer on EUV mask substrate. All the fabricated multilayer defects down to
70nm in width and 3.5nm in height are detected as clear signals that are distinguishable from the background intensity
arising from the scattering by the surface roughness of the multilayer-coated mask blank. We have also detected a
phase defect as low as 2nm in height. False defect count was not only zero within the area of view but also statistically
confirmed to be less than one within the whole area of a mask blank assuming the extrapolation of observed fluctuation
of background intensity is applicable. EUV pulse energy measurements and a CCD speed scaling suggested that the
inspection throughput of 2 hours per mask blank will be feasible. The actinic tool based on this scheme will, not only
serve for benchmarking with non-actinic tools or support multilayer deposition process improvements, but also be a
viable choice for qualification of premium EUV mask blanks.
Particle-cluster tin target is presented as the solution of a 100W EUV source for EUVL. Theory for maximizing conversion efficiency of a laser-produced plasma is derived and the theory is experimentally confirmed by using a dispersed SnO2 particles. The EUV intensity 4 times higher than that from a plasma on a solid Sn plate target is observed at the optimized density. The achieved conversion efficiency for dispersed particles is estimated to be as high as 3%/(2π str 2%BW) or higher from the value for a Sn plate of 0.8% measured by using two multilayer mirrors and a calibrated photodiode. Theoretical consideration reveals that larger diameter plasma enables higher EUV power. The particle-cluster can be delivered at multi kHz rep-rate by using water droplet. Experimental confirmation of delivering particles by droplets is also reported.
In this paper, we described a laser plasma source for Extreme Ultraviolet Lithography (EUVL) based on a water droplet target. We successfully generated stable multi-kHz water droplets with several hundred μm diameter using our experimentaql setup. We realized a good synchronization of laser with droplet by employing droplet-probing photo diode (PD) signal to trig YAG laser timely. We got EUV emission with pulse to pulse stability of 3.4% (1σ) from this droplet region without being destroyed due to hot laser plasma formation from the previous droplet.
Debris-free generation of a tin plasma was demonstrated in the cavity-confined configuration. Narrow band emission at 13.7-nm was observed in an emission spectrum of a cavity confined tin plasma. The spectral efficiency was as high as 12% and we found the conversion efficiency could reach 6%/2π str ultimately while lots of works are required to achieve this value. We also confirmed a magnetic field has some effect of stopping a plasma.
In order to protect a multilayer mirror from sputtering or ion implantation, high-energy ions ejected from EUV source plasma are to be blocked. We propose use of a laser-produced plasma as an ultra-fast shutter. Ion signal form an ion-source plasma dropped abruptly by two orders of magnitude to a noise level after the shutter plasma generation. The stopping effect for the high-energy ions was observed to reduce as the distance of shutter plasma expansion increases, but the suppression of ions below detection level was observed up to 10 mm. We concluded that reduction of ion signal was caused by in-take of the source plasma flow into the stream of the shutter plasma.
Magnetic field shield for laser produced plasma (LPP) had been investigated. The interaction between expanding LPP and magnetic field is not described by Lorentz force, but, may be described by magneto hydro dynamics. When a magnetic field strength of 0.6T was placed between LPP and a faraday cup, attainment ratio of plasma to a faraday cup was decrease to 20%. The attainment ratio was decreased from 0.4 to 0.25 with varying the distance between the plasma and the magnetic field from 10 mm to 70 mm. And, it was observed that plasma detoured around a magnetic field.
Laser plasma light source using double pulses laser irradiation and through-hole method is proposed as a mass-limited target srouce for extreme UV (EUV) radiation. After minimum necessary material is supplied using the ablation laser from a solid target, only ablated material is irradiated with the heating laser to produce a high-temperature plasma, and EUV radiation is extracted passing through the hole formed in the solid target. Fundamental concept of this scheme, EUV radiation and great reduction of particle debris were experimentally confirmed.
We succeeded in generating a strong narrowband peak at 13.7 nm in a cavity confined Sn plasma. Fraction of the energy within 2% bandwidth at 13.7 nm against the total radiation spectrum was 11.3%. In our experiment, the plasma is generated not on a solid plate but in a cavity as described below. A YAG laser pulse ablates the surface of a concave structure Sn target in order to supply the material for plasma generation. The next laser pulse with 1064nm wavelength heats the ablated material to generate a high temperature plasma. The ablation YAG laser is focused to 600μm diameter with a flux of 10 J/cm2. The heating YAG laser is focused to 100μm diameter at a delay time of 30 ns after the laser ablation. Emission spectra are observed using a grazing incidence Hitachi flat-field grating and a back side illuminated CCD detector. Fraction of the energy at 13.7nm within 2% bandwidth in the whole radiation energy was 11.3%. However, the intensity of the spectrum peak was about 1/10 against the plane Sn target LPP source. When nano (less than 200 nm diameter) particle SnO2 deposited on a 100nm-thick Si3N4 membrane were irradiated, a sharp peak was observed. The intensity of the spectral peak of the nano particle SnO2 target LPP source was as high as that of the plane Sn target LPP source. The EUV energy within 2% bandwidth at around 13.7 nm to the whole radiation energy of the nano particle SnO2 target LPP source was 7.4%.
New configuration is presented for ultra-fast at-wavelength inspection of defects on multilayer mask blanks. Key ideas are detecting defects in a high NA dark-field observation by using a Schwarzschild objective, sub-micron resolution 2D imaging of mask surface on a detector, and large etendue illumination by using a laser-plasma source. Expected time for inspecting a whole mask is shorter than 2 hours.
A novel actinic (at-wavelength) inspection tool for detecting critical phase defects in extreme ultraviolet (EUV) multilayer-coated mask blanks is designed and being developed. Block inspection by actinic dark field imaging using a combination of Schwarzschild optics, a CCD, and a laser-produced plasma (LPP) light source is employed to improve detection sensitivity while keeping decent throughput. To optimally configure optics and a mask blank within currently available options, EUV scattering from both Gaussian-shaped multilayer defects and surface roughness is simulated. Intensity of the roughness-induced scattering into the imaging optics is computed assuming 0.15nm root-mean-square (RMS) of the multilayer surface roughness with a typical power spectral density (PSD) function. Possible configuration candidates are compared in detail to detect phase defects with its size down to 30nm. We have modeled noise intensity based on the optimum configuration by integrating shot noise and spatial fluctuation of roughness. Pixel-to-pixel fluctuation of background intensity due to spatial roughness variation is studied using random fractal model to be built into the total noise model. Under the criteria of minimizing nuisance defects and maximizing capture rate of real defects, the required specifications for the power and the brilliance of the light source are computed and discussed.
For realizing a table-top x-ray laser or a compact short wavelength x-ray laser, improvement of the pumping efficiency is one of the most important points. Thermal conduction into inside of the target should suppress rising up of electron temperature of a laser-produced plasma. Then, the plasma produced on a very thin membrane target gets rid of this energy loss, and the efficiency of the high temperature plasma production will be increased. Moreover, density of the plasma from a membrane decreases very rapidly because of the small amount of target limited by the membrane thickness. These features of membrane plasma are suitable in recombination x- ray laser. To confirm the advantages of this pumping scheme, we produced the plasma on a thin membrane and the heating and expansion was evaluated. Experimentally observed spectral lines of H-like and He-like Si ions show effective heating and ionization of the plasma for a membrane target. Electron density evaluations and plasma expansion velocity measurements confirm rapid plasma expansion from the membrane target. Theoretical hydrodynamic simulation also showed the effective heating and ionization of the plasma from the membrane target.
A new pumping scheme named exploding pumping is proposed for realizing recombination x-ray lasers with high excitation efficiency. In the new scheme, a very thin membrane is employed as a target and it is heated instantaneously before the plasma starts to move by a high peak power sub- picosecond pumping laser. In the scheme, the plasma heating efficiency is improved by being free from heat conduction loss to bulk, and by suppressing the energy loss to hydrodynamic motion. Inertia of the mass delays the start of the plasma motion and gives sufficient time for full ionization. Owing to the extreme thinness of the initial high density plasma, only a few micrometers expansion leads to great reduction of the density and cools down rapidly to produce large gain. Efficient heating of a membrane plasma is confirmed in experimentally observed x-ray spectra and charge collector signals. It is discussed that the most serious problem for realizing water window x-ray lasers is conventional ablation pumping is density gradient which causes refraction of x-rays and limits gain length. The new pumping scheme can solve this refraction problem. The density profile of the expanding plasma in this scheme is fairly uniform because all material expand explosively and because no mass is supplied during the expansion. According to a numerical simulation, 3.34-nm water window of gain length product of 10 will be realized with the 6 J/ 0.3 ps laser irradiation. Longer wavelength x-ray lasers around 13- nm will be realized with a few J/ a few ps pulse pumping. The key technology in the new pumping scheme is suppression of pre-pulse. The effect of pre-pulse is experimentally observed, and means for pre-pulse suppression is discussed.
For the study of future nm devices, electronic and chemical states must be observed with nm resolution, and a photoelectron microscope is strongly desired to be developed. A compact system for in-house analysis can be realized with a laser-plasma x-ray source. Experimental results confirm that an x-ray photoelectron microscope with a laser-plasma can become a powerful tool with potential spectrum acquisition time comparable to that with a synchrotron source. Reported are high energy resolution photoelectron spectra for Si revealing the existence of surface states, and 2-D mapping with resolution of 60 micrometers demonstrating that simultaneous detection of multi-elements by the time-of-flight energy analysis is powerful in obtaining a reliable mapping. High electron detection efficiency of the system with a pulse source is discussed to be essentially important for nm resolution.
X-ray images of living cells were obtained by using a flash contact x-ray microscope system. The system consists of a high power laser (grass laser or KrF laser) for producing a plasma as an x-ray source, a small vacuum chamber, and a sample holder with a metal target for making plasma. The x- ray images were recorded on an x-ray sensitive layer on a silicon wafer. After chemical development x-ray images on the x-ray sensitive layers were read out by using an atomic force microscope. The performance of the system is demonstrated by presenting x-ray images of unicellular microorganisms, bacteria and skeletal muscle fibers. The intracellular structures were visible in some cases. For laboratory use a flash contact table-top x-ray microscopy is improved using a table-scaled YAG laser. The table-top systems showed good performance comparing to that of the x- ray microscope system with high power laser. These results indicate that the table-top x-ray microscope is a powerful instrumentation for the observation of living cells.
Anthony Stead, Anton Page, Robin Cotton, David Neely, Roland Bagby, Eisuke Miura, Toshihisa Tomie, S. Shimizu, Toshikazu Majima, Peter Anastasi, Thomas Ford
Soft x-ray contact microscopy successfully images hydrated biological material with resolution superior to light microscopy. Nanosecond laser pulses record the image before movement or radiation damage can occur, eliminating concerns of fixation-induced artifacts (cf electron microscopy). X-rays make the recording polymethyl methacrylate (PMMA) photoresist more soluble, thus a contour map of x-ray absorbency is produced in which relative heights, measured by atomic force microscopy, reflect specimen carbon density. Until now quantification of the carbon-density differences was impossible, neither has the minimum carbon density difference which is detectable been determined. Since biological specimens are composed of structures differing only marginally in carbon density the discrimination between carbon densitites is critical. Using SI3N4 windows coated with differing carbon thicknesses we have followed the rate of PMMA dissolution in order to produce calibration curves from which specimen carbon density can be determined. These experiments have also attempted to determine the minimum detectable carbon density difference. When using relatively thick (< 5micrometers ) specimens image interpretation can be difficult as spatially separated structures in the original specimen become superimposed in the x-ray image. To provide spatial resolution in three dimensions we are developing a soft x-ray stereo imaging system. Using two laser plasma x-ray sources and contoured photoresists we have obtained two simulanteous images of the same specimen from different angles. E-beam lithography, cutting and imprinting have been tested as means of producing contoured photoresists. The merits of each will be discussed and preliminary stereo images of hydrated biological specimens presented.
Soft x-ray contact microscopy provides the biologist with a technique for examining the ultrastructure of living cells at a much higher resolution than that possible by various forms of light microscopy. Readout of the developed photoresist using atomic force microscopy (AFM) produces a detailed map of the carbon densitites generated in the resist following exposure of the specimen to water-window soft x-rays (2-4nm) produced by impact of a high enrgy laser onto a suitable target. The established high resolution imaging method of transmission electron microscopy (TEM) has inherent problems in the chemical pretreatment required for producing the ultrathin sections necessary for this technique. Using the unicellular green alga Chlamydomonas the ultrastructural appearance of the cells following SXCM and TEM has been compared. While SXCM confirms the basic structural organization of the cell as seen by TEM (e.g. the organization of the thylakoid membranes within the chloroplast; flagellar insertion into the cytoplasm), there are important difference. These are in the appearance of the cell covering and the presence of carbon-dense spherical cellular inclusions.
The sperm of bambooleaf wrasse, a marine teleost, are immotile when they are diluted in a solution isotonic to the seminal plasma, but they begin to swim when they are suspended in sea water. What changes arise in morphology of the sperm cell after the motility initiation? The semen collected from the abdomen of a matured wrasse was mixed with either thinned sea water or sea water. A drop of the same specimen was placed on a cleaned silicon wafer, respectively. After fixed chemically, they were rinsed with distilled water and dried naturally in room temperature. These samples were examined carefully with use of an atomic force microscopy. Although the axonemes of intact sperms were found to be crushed as if the axonemes were cut open along doublet microtubules. The motility initiated sperm was strong enough to resist the force caused by surface tension of water in the drying process and could maintain the structure of the axoneme. These experimental facts suggest that the binding characteristics in the structure of the axoneme after the initiation of the motility were clearly changed stronger that before.
From the shot noise consideration in x-ray microscopy it is shown that, for 50 nm resolution, a few tens mJ/cm2 energy of 3 nm x ray is required on the specimen, and required x ray energy density increases with the fourth power of the resolving power. X-ray images of biological specimens in water taken by flash contact microscopy with a laser-plasma source are presented to discuss the prospects of x-ray microscopy for biological applications. Forty nanometer diameter biological components are observed in an x-ray image. The attempt of observing thick specimens by short wavelength x rays produced by a 10 ps duration laser pulse is also reported. Technical issues for further improving contact microscopy, including the feasibility of stereo-microscopy, are discussed.
Experiments are reported in which a high-density aluminum plasma was generated by a 10-picosecond KrF laser pulse. The amplified spontaneous emission (ASE) level of the prepulse was controlled by using a saturable dye. The electron density was estimated from the intensity ration of the Ly-alpha satellite components. It is found that ASE has to be suppressed to less than 10 exp 9 W/sq cm to create a high electron density plasma.
We studied laser-produced plasma as an x-ray source for x-ray microscopy. Using water- window x rays, contact x-ray images of living sea urchin sperm were taken by a 500 picosecond x-ray pulse. The resist relief was examined by atomic force microscope and informations characteristic of x-ray microscopy were obtained. The finest feature noticed in the x-ray image was 0.1 micrometers .
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