The human cerebral cortex is composed of gyri of approximately 10–15 mm in width that have independent functions. To explore their activities with functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS), hemodynamic responses at single gyri should be measured. Most fNIRS devices only offer a channel arrangement with a larger interval size than the gyrus width, which can cause false negative errors in detecting cortical activation localized within 10–15 mm, and this has been an obstacle using fNIRS to explore cortical activities. Previously, we demonstrated doubling of the channel density using a triangular arrangement of dual-purpose optodes with a minimum number of optodes that was almost equivalent to that used in conventional arrangements. To implement this method as a wearable device for human measurement, we developed a dual-purpose optode to function both as the source and detector with the base unit triangularly mounted by three optodes, and the connectors joining plural base units with three-way joints. Optodes in this triangular arrangement illuminated and detected in sequence between adjacent optodes and performed high-density 15-mm measurements in channel intervals. Measurements of 30 channels on an adult human successfully detected hemodynamic responses to unilateral finger movements at the motor-related cortical regions according to their functions.
Many studies on CW spatially resolved spectroscopy (CW-SRS) have been conducted to noninvasively determine the optical properties, particularly the absorption and reduced scattering coefficients, μa and μs′, of biological tissues. To determine both μa and μs′, conventional CW-SRS employs measurements of the diffuse reflectances at short source-detector (SD) distances in the non-diffusion regime. In contrast, CW-SRS with long SD distances in the diffusion regime can determine only the effective attenuation coefficients, μeff = (3μaμs′)1/2 without separating μa and μs′. This study proposes a new method to separately determine μa and μs′ using CW-SRS with long SD distances, extending to conditions with high and low internal reflection at the boundary of homogeneous semi-infinite media. The proposed method used two ratios of the diffuse reflectances at two long SD distances, and μa and μs′ were determined by fitting the theoretical ratios to the measured values. Numerical simulations were conducted to validate the proposed method. As a light propagation model, the analytical solution of the time-dependent photon diffusion equation under the partial-current boundary condition (TD-DE-PCBC), which is verified for high internal reflection, was employed. Simulated measurements of the two ratios were compared with the calculated ratios (so-called look-up tables) using the TD-DE-PCBC to determine both μa and μs of the media. Simulation results demonstrate the validity of the proposed method. The effects of deviations in the SD distances and internal reflection coefficients were evaluated. Changes in the light propagation paths in the medium are discussed, and methods to realize the proposed method are suggested.
Significance: Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is a technique for detecting regional hemodynamic responses associated with neural activation in the cerebral cortex. The absorption changes due to hemodynamic changes in the scalp cause considerable signal contamination in the fNIRS measurement. A method for extracting hemodynamic changes in the cerebral tissue is required for reliable fNIRS measurement.
Aim: To exclusively detect cerebral functional hemodynamic changes, we developed an fNIRS technique using reflectance modulation of the scalp surface.
Approach: The theoretical feasibility of the proposed method was proven by a simulation calculation of light propagation. Its practical feasibility was evaluated by a phantom experiment and brain activation simulation mimicking human fNIRS experiments.
Results: The simulation calculation revealed that the partial path length of the scalp was changed by reflectance modulation of the scalp surface. The influence of absorption change in the superficial layer was successfully reduced by the proposed method, using only measurement data, in the phantom experiment. The proposed method was applicable to human experiments of standard designs, achieving statistical significance within an acceptable experimental time-frame.
Conclusions: Removal of the scalp hemodynamic effect by the proposed technique will increase the quality of fNIRS data, particularly in measurements in neonates and infants that typically would require a dense optode arrangement.
Functional near infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) can separately measure spatially differentiated brain functions by appropriately positioning irradiation and detection probes on the scalp, where brain region that could be assessed is limited to the adjacent region directly below the probe pair. A key challenge is determining the appropriate probe position for measuring the function of target brain region. Here, we propose an fNIRS probe positioning system using augmented reality technology. From a subject’s anatomical 3D magnetic resonance images, geometry of the head tissues including the appropriate position directly above the targeted brain region was obtained. The system captured an image of the subject’s head and several facial landmarks were extracted. Subsequently, the anatomical geometry was fitted into the captured image of the head to align with the landmark positions. Finally, the target probe positions were indicated icons on the captured head images. These were processed in real-time, while following the motion of the subject’s head. Therefore, the appropriate probe position was spatially determined by taking a video of the subject's head from various directions. The system was implemented on a generic tablet computer. Positioning accuracy of system in a mannequin head with a shape and color similar to that of a human face was assessed. Errors from the appropriate position were less than 10 mm, which is adequate for appropriate probe positioning in hemodynamic response measurement from the target gyrus, since brain gyri in human adults are approximately 10 mm in width.
Scalp hemodynamics contaminates the signals from functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Numerous methods have been proposed to reduce this contamination, but no golden standard has yet been established. Here we constructed a multi-layered solid phantom to experimentally validate such methods. This phantom comprises four layers corresponding to epidermides, dermis/skull (upper dynamic layer), cerebrospinal fluid and brain (lower dynamic layer) and the thicknesses of these layers were 0.3, 10, 1, and 50 mm, respectively. The epidermides and cerebrospinal fluid layers were made of polystyrene and an acrylic board, respectively. Both of these dynamic layers were made of epoxy resin. An infrared dye and titanium dioxide were mixed to match their absorption and reduced scattering coefficients (μa and μs’, respectively) with those of biological tissues. The bases of both upper and lower dynamic layers have a slot for laterally sliding a bar that holds an absorber piece. This bar was laterally moved using a programmable stepping motor. The optical properties of dynamic layers were estimated based on the transmittance and reflectance using the Monte Carlo look-up table method. The estimated coefficients for lower and upper dynamic layers approximately coincided with those for biological tissues. We confirmed that the preliminary fNIRS measurement using the fabricated phantom showed that the signals from the brain layer were recovered if those from the dermis layer were completely removed from their mixture, indicating that the phantom is useful for evaluating methods for reducing the contamination of the signals from the scalp.
KEYWORDS: Signal to noise ratio, Sensors, Near infrared spectroscopy, Signal detection, Optical attenuators, Modulation, Attenuators, Interference (communication), Tissues, Optical phantoms
The difference in signal-to-noise ratio (SNR) within functional near-infrared spectroscopic (fNIRS)-measurement channels makes it difficult to compare the significance of the signal amplitude in an individual channel against the baseline or against signals in other channels. The difference in SNR mainly originates from the difference in light loss due to the hair coverage or the optode–scalp contact. During the initial calibration of most commercial fNIRS equipment, the detected signals in different channels are differently amplified such that the system effectively utilizes a dynamic range for measurement. While different amplification rates among the channels realize almost equal signal intensities, they also differently amplify the detection noises. This results in different apparent noises in the fNIRS signals between channels. In order to level the SNRs in all the measurement channels, the system needs to equalize the light intensities received by the detectors instead of changing the signal amplification rates. To realize this novel procedure for leveling the SNR among the channels, we developed an fNIRS system equipped with an optical attenuator at each source and detector. A systematic procedure for modulating the attenuators to level SNR over all channels was mathematically formulated, and the procedure was examined using an optical phantom with a surface covered with air.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is suitable for measuring brain functions during neurorehabilitation
because of its portability and less motion restriction. However, it is not known whether neural reconstruction can be
observed through changes in cerebral hemodynamics. In this study, we modified an fNIRS system for measuring the
motor function of awake monkeys to study cerebral hemodynamics during neurorehabilitation. Computer simulation was
performed to determine the optimal fNIRS source–detector interval for monkey motor cortex. Accurate digital phantoms
were constructed based on anatomical magnetic resonance images. Light propagation based on the diffusion equation
was numerically calculated using the finite element method. The source–detector pair was placed on the scalp above the
primary motor cortex. Four different interval values (10, 15, 20, 25 mm) were examined. The results showed that the
detected intensity decreased and the partial optical path length in gray matter increased with an increase in the source-detector
interval. We found that 15 mm is the optimal interval for the fNIRS measurement of monkey motor cortex. The
preliminary measurement was performed on a healthy female macaque monkey using fNIRS equipment and custom-made
optodes and optode holder. The optodes were attached above bilateral primary motor cortices. Under the awaking
condition, 10 to 20 trials of alternated single-sided hand movements for several seconds with intervals of 10 to 30 s were
performed. Increases and decreases in oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin concentration were observed in a localized area in the
hemisphere contralateral to the moved forelimb.
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) can non-invasively detect hemodynamic changes associated with cerebral neural activation in human subjects. However, its signal is often affected by changes in the optical characteristics of tissues in the head other than brain. To conduct fNIRS measurements precisely and efficiently, the extraction and realtime monitoring of the cerebral functional component is crucial. We previously developed methods for extracting the cerebral functional component—the multidistance optode arrangement (MD) method and the hemodynamic modality separation (HMS) method. In this study, we implemented these methods in a software used with the fNIRS system OEG- 17APD (Spectratech, Japan), and realized a real-time display of the extracted results. When using this system for human subject experiments, the baselines obtained with the MD and HMS methods were highly stabilized, whereas originally, the fNIRS signal fluctuated significantly when the subject moved. Through a functional experiment with repetitive single-sided hand clasping tasks, the extracted signals showed distinctively higher reproducibility than that obtained in the conventional measurements.
While most commercially available functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) systems employ optical fibers for
both the measurement optode and the transmission cable for optical signals, their material inflexibility presents some
problems in stable optode fixation to the head surface and adequate cable lining to the main system. In practice,
mechanical fluctuations of optical fibers in fNIRS measurement often lead to motion artifacts in the signals. A few fiberless
fNIRS systems are available and equipped with light sources and detectors that directly adhere to the scalp surface.
However, their shapes and detection sensitivities are not suitable for usage on a hair-covered head. Based on the
commercial fiber-less fNIRS system OEG-16 (Spectratech Inc., Japan), we developed a new source-detector unit that
was designed with LEDs for enhanced illumination, avalanche photodiodes instead of photodiodes, and a new holder
system. The electrical circuits of the system were modified after the design. By simultaneous implementation of multidistance
fNIRS measurement and hemodynamic modality separation on conventional fNIRS data at the bilateral parietal
area during single-sided motor tasks, significant functional signals were observed only at the position contralateral to the
side of movement. This is the first report describing a fiber-less fNIRS system that can detect functional signals on a
hair-covered head. We believe this fiber-less system will improve the utility of fNIRS, particularly in less restraining
conditions.
Similar to blood oxygenation level-dependent (BOLD) functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), functional nearinfrared
spectroscopy (fNIRS) observes regional hemodynamic responses associated with neuronal activation. However,
the conventional criteria for detecting true positive fNIRS and fMRI signals appear to be based on different
understandings of cerebral hemodynamics. Considerable numbers of fNIRS studies have ascribed the increase in
oxygenated hemoglobin to a typical sign of functional activation, whereas the corresponding BOLD signal in fMRI
directly correlates with a decrease in deoxygenated hemoglobin. This inconsistency requires solution through the
simultaneous measurements of fNIRS and fMRI. In practice, however, there remain several technical problems
associated with conducting simultaneous measurements with high reproducibility. One issue is the precise spatial
registration of NIRS optodes in MR images. We prepared marker containers of an annular shape that can be coaxially
fixed to the optode. Liquid paraffin with α-tocopheryl acetate, which exhibits a bright contrast in T1-weighted MR
images of human heads, was solidified in each container by adding higher fatty acid. A subject wearing the marker-fixed
optodes at parietal area participated in preliminary fNIRS and fMRI experiments; the subject was instructed to execute
single-sided hand finger tapping. The positions showed that deoxygenated hemoglobin decreases in fNIRS coincided
with the BOLD-positive region in fMRI. The prepared marker is chemically stable and repetitively usable. We believe
that this simple method contributes precision to the co-registration of fNIRS and fMRI.
KEYWORDS: Absorbance, Linear filtering, Sensors, Transmittance, Near infrared spectroscopy, Head, Absorption, Mass attenuation coefficient, Fluctuations and noise, Optical filters
Multichannel functional near-infrared spectroscopy measurements involve the placement of many probes on a subject’s head. A stable close contact between the probe and head surface is essential. We propose a way to detect two types of problematic probe contacts from the measurement data: an unstable contact whose light transmission easily fluctuates with body motion, and a weak contact whose light transmission is constantly small. An unstable contact causes large baseline fluctuation, whereas a weak contact causes large noise. Because absorbance changes caused by body motion and noise show different spectroscopic properties from the tissue hemoglobin absorption, they have a component orthogonal to the plane spanned by hemoglobin molar extinction coefficient vectors. We use this information to detect unstable and/or weak contacts. Probes are shared by different channels, and this sharing configuration is determined by the probe arrangement. Thus, the baseline fluctuation and noise of the channels are related to contact instability and weakness of the probe according to the probe arrangement. Unstable and/or weak probes are determined by solving an inverse problem of this relation. Problematic probes can be effectively determined using the proposed method.
We provide theoretical validation of the brain-functional detection using multidistance probe arrangement based
on Monte Carlo simulations of five-layered model in which both scattering and absorption changes occur. It
shows that optimized multidistance probe arrangement can be effective in removing interferences by scattering
and absorption changes in upper layers and extracting absorption change in the gray matter layer. Using newly
designed probes and their holder system, both conventional and proposed fNIRS measurements were implemented
with non-functional (body and head movements and respiratory change) and functional (finger opposition) tasks.
Artifacts, even if it correlate with task sequence, were well reduced. Functional signals were well localized at
lateralized cerebral functional area.
The performance of near-infrared spectroscopy is sometimes degraded by the systemic physiological interference in the extracerebral layer. There is some systemic interference, which is highly correlated with the functional response evoked by a task execution. This kind of interference is difficult to remove by using ordinary techniques. A multidistance measurement method is one of the possible solutions for this problem. The multidistance measurement method requires estimation parameters derived from partial pathlength values of tissue layers to calculate an absorption coefficient change from a temporal absorbance change. Because partial path lengths are difficult to obtain, experimentally, we estimated them by a Monte Carlo simulation based on a five-layered slab model of a human adult head. Model parameters such as thickness and the transport scattering coefficient of each layer depend on a subject and a measurement position; thus, we assumed that these parameters obey normal distributions around standard parameter values. We determined the estimation parameters that provide a good separation performance in average for the model parameter distribution. The obtained weighting is robust to model parameter deviation and provides smaller errors on average compared to the parameters, which are determined without considering parameter distribution.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Absorption, Hemodynamics, Signal attenuation, Scattering, Near infrared spectroscopy, Monte Carlo methods, Skull, Signal detection, Head
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy has the potential to easily detect cerebral functional hemodynamics. However, in practical fNIRS measurements, a subject's physical or systemic physiological activities often cause undesirable artifacts. Such activities can be evoked even by task execution. In this case, observed artifacts may correlate strongly with the task sequence, and it is difficult to eliminate them by conventional signal filtering techniques. We present a theoretical analysis and Monte Carlo simulations of layered media in which both scattering and absorption changes occur, and show that a multidistance probe arrangement is effective in removing artifacts and extracting functional hemodynamics. The probe arrangement is determined based on simulation results. Artifacts induced by nonfunctional tasks (body tilting, head nodding, and breath holding) are clearly observed when a conventional method is used; such artifacts are appreciably reduced by the proposed method. Signals evoked by single-sided finger movements are observed at both hemispheres when we use a conventional method. On the other hand, localized signals at the primary motor area are observed by the proposed method. A statistically significant increase in oxygenated hemoglobin and decrease in deoxygenated hemoglobin are simultaneously observed at the contralateral primary motor area
KEYWORDS: Near infrared spectroscopy, Signal to noise ratio, Optical testing, Sensors, Biological research, Biomedical optics, Signal attenuation, Solids, Human subjects, Absorption
In near-infrared spectroscopy (NIRS), concentration changes in oxy- and deoxyhemoglobin are calculated using an attenuation change of the measurement light and by solving a linear equation based on the modified Lambert-Beer law. While solving this equation, we need to know the wavelength-dependent mean optical path lengths of the measurement lights. However, it is very difficult to know these values by a continuous-wave-type (CW-type) system. We propose a new method of estimating wavelength-dependent optical path length ratios of the measurement lights based on the data obtained by a triple wavelength CW-type NIRS instrument. The proposed method does not give a path length itself, but it gives a path length ratio. Thus, it is possible to obtain the accurate hemoglobin concentration changes without cross talk, although the method cannot contribute to the quantification of the absolute magnitude of hemoglobin changes. The method is based on the principle that two possible estimations of hemoglobin concentration changes calculated using a triple-wavelength measurement system should be identical. The method was applied to the experimental data of human subjects' foreheads. The estimated path length ratios were very similar to literature values obtained by using picosecond laser pulses and a streak camera detector [M. Essenpreis et al., Appl. Opt. 32(4), 418-425 (1993)].
KEYWORDS: Skull, Near infrared spectroscopy, Monte Carlo methods, Tissue optics, Signal attenuation, Chromophores, Absorption, Optical testing, Head, Biomedical optics
In near-infrared spectroscopy, concentration changes in oxygenated and deoxygenated hemoglobin are calculated from the changes in the attenuation of the measurement light. This is done by solving a linear equation based on the modified Lambert-Beer law. To solve this equation, we need to know the partial optical pathlengths in the activated region in the brain. Because they are difficult to know, a wavelength-independent constant or a wavelength-dependent total optical pathlength has been substituted for these values in actual measurements. This kind of substitution inevitably produces errors, called cross-talk, when calculating concentration changes. In this paper, we propose a new cross-talk measure for dual and triple wavelength measurements, and analyze it over various wavelength combinations. The results indicate that constant substitution is not inferior to total path-length substitution in dual wavelength measurements, and that total path-length substitution is very effective for triple wavelength measurements.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Near infrared spectroscopy, Head, Absorbance, Absorption, Brain, Monte Carlo methods, Signal detection, Blood circulation, Electronic filtering
Functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) has the potential of easily detecting cerebral activity. However, in
practical fNIRS measurements, a subject's physical or physiological changes such as body movements have often
caused serious problems. If such a change is evoked by the tasks being monitored, it strongly correlates with the
task sequence, and its interference in fNIRS cannot be eliminated using conventional signal filtering techniques.
Hence, further improvement is necessary to eliminate such interference if we intend to use fNIRS on subjects
with little or no physical restraint such as infants. We introduced an additional detector (d2) between the source
and detector (d1) positioned in a conventional arrangement. The distances from the source to the detector d1
and d2 were set at 30 mm and 20 mm, respectively. Concentration changes of oxygenated and deoxygenated
hemoglobin (ΔHbO and ΔHbR) were calculated using the linear combination of absorbance changes at d1 and
d2. Then tasks such as the upper-body tilting, the head nodding, the breath holding, and the finger opposition
were performed by the participant. The statistical significance of the difference in concentration changes of
ΔHbO and ΔHbR between task and rest periods was examined using the paired t-test. The results showed that
interference due to upper-body tilting, head nodding, and breath holding was reduced by this method. Moreover,
in the finger opposition task, a simultaneous increase of ΔHbO and decrease of ΔHbR was observed and these
were significantly localized in the activation area by this method.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.