Traditionally, polymer photonic devices are fabricated using clean-room processes such as photolithography, e-beam lithography, reactive ion etching (RIE) and lift-off methods etc, which leads to long fabrication time, low throughput and high cost. We have utilized a novel process for fabricating polymer photonic devices using a combination of imprinting and ink jet printing methods, which provides high throughput on a variety of rigid and flexible substrates with low cost. We discuss the manufacturing challenges that need to be overcome in order to realize true implementation of roll-to-roll manufacturing of flexible polymer photonic systems. Several metrology and instrumentation challenges involved such as availability of particulate-free high quality substrate, development and implementation of high-speed in-line and off-line inspection and diagnostic tools with adaptive control for patterned and unpatterned material films, development of reliable hardware, etc need to be addressed and overcome in order to realize a successful manufacturing process. Due to extreme resolution requirements compared to print media, the burden of software and hardware tools on the throughput also needs to be carefully determined. Moreover, the effect of web wander and variations in web speed need to accurately be determined in the design of the system hardware and software. In this paper, we show the realization of solutions for few challenges, and utilizing these solutions for developing a high-rate R2R dual stage ink-jet printer that can provide alignment accuracy of <10m at a web speed of 5m/min. The development of a roll-to-roll manufacturing system for polymer photonic systems opens limitless possibilities for the deployment of high performance components in a variety of applications including communication, sensing, medicine, agriculture, energy, lighting etc.
For three-dimensional imaging of optical absorbance, the existing technology of photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) has quite poor axial resolution, the tens of microns to hundreds of microns. This is despite the fact that PAM has recently achieved lateral resolutions on the order of a micron or submicron, comparable to that of optical microscopy. In this paper, a pure optical photoacoustic microscopy (POPAM) with optical rastering of a focused excitation beam and optically sensing of the photoacoustic signal using a microring resonator was developed with the super broad bandwidth of the system more than 350MHz. With unprecedented broad bandwidth of POPAM, 3.8μm axial resolution was achieved without deconvolution processing. Sectioning imaging ability along axial direction presenting 3D morphologic features was shown based on imaging printed phantom. The impact of this approach will be similar to how confocal optical microscopy revolutionized the conventional optical microscopy by enabling the axial sectioning capability. Tissue imaging comparing POPAM and conventional PAM based on needle hydrophone demonstrated that though such broad bandwidth compromised the sensitivity of POPAM 4.35 times than that of conventional PAM, the noise equivalent detectable pressure (NEDP) was estimated as 74Pa, still able to get the tissue imaging.
Traditionally, polymer photonic devices are fabricated using clean-room processes such as photolithography, electron
beam lithography, reactive ion etching (RIE) and lift-off methods etc, which leads to long fabrication time, low
throughput and high cost. We describe in this paper a novel process for fabricating polymer photonic devices using a
combination of imprinting and ink jet printing methods, which provides high throughput on a variety of rigid and
flexible substrates with low cost. Particularly, we demonstrate a thermo-optic switch and an electro-optic modulator. In
the rib waveguide patterning, the imprint lithography transfers the waveguide pattern from a soft mold to UV-15LV
bottom cladding layer. The soft mold is replicated from a silicon master mold and rendered hydrophobic to ensure
successful de-molding. Ink jet printing method is used to deposit the core layer in thermo-optic switch and electrode
layers in electro-optic modulator. Compared to spin-coating method, the use of print-on-demand method greatly reduces
material consumption and process complexity. Every step involved has the potential to be fully compatible with roll-toroll
(R2R) volume production. For example, the soft mold can be wrapped around a cylinder to realized roll-to-roll
imprinting. By combining R2R imprint lithography with ink jet printing, fabrication of large volume and large area
multi-layer polymer photonic devices can be realized.
It has been studied that a potential marker to obtain prognostic information about bladder cancer is tumor neoangiogenesis, which can be quantified by morphometric characteristics such as microvascular density. Photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) can render sensitive three-dimensional (3D) mapping of microvasculature, providing promise to evaluate the neoangiogenesis that is closely related to the diagnosis of bladder cancer. To ensure good image quality, it is desired to acquire bladder PAM images from its inside via the urethra, like conventional cystoscope. Previously, we demonstrated all-optical PAM systems using polymer microring resonators to detect photoacoustic signals and galvanometer mirrors for laser scanning. In this work, we build a miniature PAM system using a microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) scanning mirror, demonstrating a prototype of an endoscopic PAM head capable of high imaging quality of the bladder. The system has high resolutions of 17.5 μm in lateral direction and 19 μm in the axial direction at a distance of 5.4 mm. Images of printed grids and the 3D structure of microvasculature in animal bladders ex vivo by the system are demonstrated.
The concept of pure optical photoacoustic microscopy(POPAM) was proposed based on optical rastering of a focused
excitation beam and optically sensing the photoacoustic signal using a microring resonator fabricated by a
nanoimprinting technique. After some refinedment of in the resonator structure and mold fabrication, an ultrahigh Q
factor of 3.0×105 was achieved which provided high sensitivity with a noise equivalent detectable pressure(NEDP) value
of 29Pa. This NEDP is much lower than the hundreds of Pascals achieved with existing optical resonant structures such
as etalons, fiber gratings and dielectric multilayer interference filters available for acoustic measurement. The featured
high sensitivity allowed the microring resonator to detect the weak photoacoustic signals from micro- or submicroscale
objects. The inherent superbroad bandwidth of the optical microring resonator combined with an optically focused
scanning beam provided POPAM of high resolution in the axial as well as both lateral directions while the axial
resolution of conventional photoacoustic microscopy (PAM) suffers from the limited bandwidth of PZT detectors.
Furthermore, the broadband microring resonator showed similar sensitivity to that of our most sensitive PZT detector.
The current POPAM system provides a lateral resolution of 5μm and an axial resolution of 8μm, comparable to that
achieved by optical microscopy while presenting the unique contrast of optical absorption and functional information
complementing other optical modalities. The 3D structure of microvasculature, including capillary networks, and even
individual red blood cells have been discerned successfully in the proof-of-concept experiments on mouse bladders ex
vivo and mouse ears in vivo. The potential of approximately GHz bandwidth of the microring resonator also might allow
much higher resolution than shown here in microscopy of optical absorption and acoustic propagation properties at
depths in unfrozen tissue specimens or thicker tissue sections not now imageable with current optical or acoustic
microscopes of comparable resolution.
Optical detection of ultrasound is an emerging technique based on the interaction of strain field and optical field,
modulating the optical properties of the resonance cavity for sensitive detection. Such a detection scheme can have
several unique advantages, such as broadband response and size-independent sensitivity, compared with conventional
piezoelectric transducers. Detector's high sensitivity is essential for deep penetration depth, especially for highresolution
imaging because of the strong attenuation of high-frequency ultrasound. Besides, small element size has the
advantage of realizing wide acceptance angle of ultrasound detection. Previously we have demonstrated optical-based
ultrasound detectors using polymer microring resonators, showing flat spectral response from dc to high frequency, over
90 MHz at -3-dB. By improving the fabrication process, we are able to achieve a new generation device with higher
sensitivity and smaller element size. An ultralow noise-equivalent pressure of 21.4 Pa over 1-75 MHz range has been
achieved using a fabricated detector of 60 μm diameter. We will mainly demonstrate its applications to photoacoustic
imaging, including photoacoustic computed tomography and photoacoustic microscopy. The new generation device can
also be applied to other ultrasound-related imaging and detection.
Small size polymer microring resonators have been exploited for photoacoustic (PA) imaging. To demonstrate the advantages of the wide acceptance angle of ultrasound detection of small size microrings, photoacoustic tomography (PAT), and delay-and-sum beamforming PA imaging was conducted. In PAT, we compared the imaging quality using different sizes of detectors with similar noise-equivalent pressures and the same wideband response: 500 μm hydrophone and 100, 60, and 40 μm microrings. The results show significantly improved imaging contrast and high resolution over the whole imaging region using smaller size detectors. The uniform high resolution in PAT imaging using 40 μm microrings indicates the potential to resolve microvasculature over a large imaging region. The improved lateral resolution of two-dimensional and three-dimensional delay-and-sum beamforming PA imaging using a synthetic array demonstrate another advantageous application of small microrings. The small microrings can also be applied to other ultrasound-related imaging applications.
Light-absorbing films have been utilized as optoacoustic transmitters for all optical ultrasound transducers. For these
thin-film transmitters, however, optoacoustic conversion efficiencies (OCEs) and the output pressures have not been
evaluated over a broadband and high frequency range. Here, we characterized such optoacoustic performance with high
precision by using optical microring ultrasound detectors (OMUDs) under a plane wave configuration. We obtained
ultrasound pulses minimizing diffraction-induced signal distortion, while maintaining broadband spectral information up
to 100 MHz owing to the detector wideband response. In order to find an efficient thermal transfer medium for
optoacoustic generation, we compared the OCEs and the output pressures for various polymers. Finally, a 2-D gold
nanostructure with the polymer layer was characterized over the broadband frequency range.
We designed and fabricated a probe for endoscopic photoacoustic imaging with a structure that includes an optical fiber
to deliver laser pulses and polymer microring resonators on transparent fused silica substrate. To calibrate the
performance of the probe, a 6 μm carbon fiber embedded in an agarose gel phantom was imaged. At a depth of 2.7 mm
from the probe edge, radial resolution up to 21 μm and transverse resolution of 750 μm were obtained. Transverse
resolution can be improved using fibers with small core sizes. Experimental results show that the devised probe has
potential for high-resolution photoacoustic endoscopy.
A photoacoustic correlation spectroscopy (PACS) technique was proposed for the first time. This technique is inspired
by its optical counterpart-the fluorescence correlation spectroscopy (FCS), which is widely used in the characterization
of the dynamics of fluorescent species. The fluorescence intensity is measured in FCS while the acoustic signals are
detected in PACS. To proof of concept, we demonstrated the flow measurement of light-absorbing beads probed by a
pulsed laser. A PACS system with temporal resolution of 0.8 sec was built. Polymer microring resonators were used to
detect the photoacoustic signals, which were then signal processed and used to obtain the autocorrelation curves. Flow
speeds ranging from 249 to 15.1 μm/s with corresponding flow time from 4.42 to 72.5 sec were measured. The
capability of low-speed flow measurement can potentially be used for detecting blood flow in relatively deep capillaries
in biological tissues. Moreover, similar to FCS, PACS may have many potential applications in studying the dynamics of
photoacoustic beads.
We present a photo-acoustic concave transmitter to generate and subsequently focus high frequency ultrasound. Owing
to a short time-duration of pulse laser beam, high frequency acoustic waves and tight focusing can be easily achieved.
The transmitter consists of a light-absorbing film coated on a concave spherical structure. For detection, we used an
optical microring ultrasound detector capable of covering a broadband and high frequency spectrum of photo-acoustic
source. A spot width of ~44 μm was obtained at the focal plane. As the finite size and the specific shape of the microring
cause a geometrical effect on the detection process, especially for high frequency components, we performed a 2-D
spatial signal processing to remove this effect and extract a pure pressure distribution. The aperture for acoustic focusing
could be optically controlled by changing the size of pulse laser beam.
We propose an acoustic 4f imaging system by using a pair of acoustic lens and an optical microring ultrasound detector
(OMUD). The system was designed to have a long range imaging, and the signal strength was enhanced by a factor of
~13 by using an acryl-based acoustic lens at an imaging distance of close to 10 cm. The acoustic signal had a broadband
and high frequency spectrum for a given focal distance owing to the unique characteristic of the OMUD. The imaging
was obtained without using any reconstruction algorithms. Several performances of the designed system have been
investigated by using photo-acoustic microspheres (301 μm in diameter) which are excited by pulsed laser beam. The
resolution of images were compared, which consist of full frequency spectrum and harmonic frequency components.
With high frequency (10 MHz and 15 MHz), the images showed consistently better resolutions (440 μm and 370 μm)
for the microsphere. Frequency analysis of a time-domain signal waveform showed that the signal spectrum of the
current system extends up to 20 MHz.
The combination of intravascular ultrasound and intravascular photoacoustic imaging has been proposed. In
this study, we propose a scan head design that is sufficiently small to fit in the tip of the catheter. In
addition, the design is also suitable for ultra high frame rate imaging. The scan head consists of a single
element, ring-shaped transducer for sideward ultrasound transmission. The transducer has a diameter of
3mm. On acoustic detection, we propose the use of a polymer microring array. For demonstration purposes,
a single micro-ring is used with mechanical scanning in this study. For optical illumination, a multimode
fiber with a cone-shaped mirror is used. Note that only a single ultrasound/laser pulse is required to acquire
an ultrasound/photoacoustic image frame. Phantom imaging results are demonstrated.
Photoacoustic tomography is an imaging technique based on the reconstruction of distribution of acoustic pressure,
generated by the absorption of short laser pulses in biological tissues. The detected ultrasound signals can be represented
by the convolution of the structure of objects, the laser pulse, and the impulse response of the ultrasound detectors.
Detector's wideband response is essential for imaging reconstruction of multiscale objects by utilizing a range of
characteristic acoustic wavelengths. Optical detection of ultrasound has the advantage of realizing high-frequency widebandwidth
ultrasound detection. Previously we have demonstrated a polymer microring resonator based ultrasound
detector with flat spectral response from dc to high frequency, over 90 MHz at -3-dB. By using a reconstruction
algorithm to simulate the photoacoustic tomography of microspheres of different sizes, we compared the imaging
performance of the microring resonators and piezoelectric transducers. Due to the broadband response, the former was
able to faithfully detect both the boundaries that are characteristics of high spatial frequencies and the inner structure
consisting primarily of low spatial frequency components. Piezoelectric transducers can only preserve one of the two
aspects, depending on the choice of detector's central frequency. Experimental results demonstrate the benefit of
broadband response of polymer microring resonators.
Ultrasound microscopy uses high frequency (>40 MHz) ultrasound to produce high resolution images. For high
resolution microscopy, broadband ultrasound generation and detection is necessary. Because high frequency ultrasound
experiences significant absorption loss that results in weaker signals, it is desirable to focus the energy for microscopy
applications, which also results in higher lateral resolution. In this work, thermo-elastically generated ultrasound was
brought into a tight focus by shining a ns laser pulse onto a thin metal film-coated concave surface. For ultrasound
detection, we use polymer microring resonators which have high frequency and wide band response. We experimentally
obtained spatial and temporal characteristics of focused ultrasound by optical generation and detection. The 3-dB spot
width of the focused ultrasound is ~50 μm. By frequency filtering over 40~100 MHz, 21 μm width is obtained. The
temporal profile is close to the time-derivative of laser pulse waveform. Frequency domain analysis for the signal shows
that high frequency loss mechanism of our system is dominated by angular directivity of the microring detector. The
issues to improve high frequency response are discussed.
Diagnostic ultrasound imaging traditionally uses piezoelectric transducers for transmission and reception of ultrasound
pulses. As the elements in the imaging array are reduced in size, however, the sensitivity will inherently decrease. We
have developed a new, optically-based ultrasound sensor using polymer microring resonators. The device consists of a
100μm-diameter polystyrene ring waveguide coupled to an input/output bus waveguide, and is fabricated by nanoimprint
lithography. Acoustic pressure causes change in the waveguide cross-section dimension and strain in the polystyrene
material, resulting in a change in the effective refractive index and a shift in resonant wavelength. The ultrasonic
waveform can be recovered from this modulation of optical output. The dynamic range and sensitivity of each microring
can be tuned appropriately by adjusting the Q during fabrication. Our experiments show a low noise-equivalent pressure
on the order of 1 kPa. Sensitivity has been measured by the application of known static pressure and a calibrated 20 MHz
ultrasound transducer. A simple 1D array is demonstrated using wavelength multiplexing. The angular response is
determined by sensing the optoacoustic excitation of a 49μm polyester microsphere and shows wide-angle sensitivity,
making the sensors useful for beamforming. The frequency response is relatively flat between DC and 40 MHz, and can
be extended further by choice of substrate material, limited only by the electrical bandwidth of the photodetector. The
high sensitivity, bandwidth, and angular response make it a potentially useful sensor platform for applications in
ultrasound imaging, dosimetry, and non-destructive testing.
Silica micro-tube resonator is a very attractive biosensor platform for label-free detection of bio-molecules by
combining high sensitivity and simple fluidic handling. We report the study of lipid membrane binding on micro-tube
sensor that is probed by a prism coupling technique. Prism coupling to the micro-tube resonance modes allows thick
micro-tube to be used and the selectivity of high-sensitivity modes. We were able to identify and probe a special
resonance mode that has very high Electrical field at the boundary of the fluid and the inner tube wall. Unlike typical
WGM modes, such resonance modes also have very high Electrical field extending into the lower index fluid region,
thereby providing exceptionally high sensitivity to the fluid's refractive index change. We used this type of resonance
mode to detect the formation of single bilayer lipid membrane on the inner tube wall. With 4-5nm POPC lipid membrane
with refractive index around 1.46 absorbed on the inner wall, we can observe the resonance peak shift around 44pm. Mie
scattering simulation of the resonance peak shift due to the bio-film absorbed onto the inner wall agrees very well with
the experiment results. We also observed resonance peak shift with the membrane protein Annexin V bonding to the
lipid membrane. With the present Q factor 6×104 at 1.55μm wavelength, we estimate that our devices can detect the
presence of 0.1nm thick absorbed film on the inner wall of the tube. The device's sensitivity can be greatly enhanced by
switching the working wavelength from infrared wavelength to visible wavelength where water absorption is minimized.
Photonic microring resonators have great potential in the application of highly sensitive label-free biosensors and
detection of high-frequency ultrasound due to high Q-factor resonances. Design consideration, device fabrication
techniques, experimental results are report in this paper.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.