Printed sensor arrays are attractive for reliable, low-cost, and large-area mapping of structural systems. These sensor
arrays can be printed on flexible substrates or directly on monitored structural parts. This technology is sought for
continuous or on-demand real-time diagnosis and prognosis of complex structural components. In the past decade, many
innovative technologies and functional materials have been explored to develop printed electronics and sensors. For
example, an all-printed strain sensor array is a recent example of a low-cost, flexible and light-weight system that
provides a reliable method for monitoring the state of aircraft structural parts. Among all-printing techniques, screen and
inkjet printing methods are well suited for smaller-scale prototyping and have drawn much interest due to maturity of
printing procedures and availability of compatible inks and substrates. Screen printing relies on a mask (screen) to
transfer a pattern onto a substrate. Screen printing is widely used because of the high printing speed, large selection of
ink/substrate materials, and capability of making complex multilayer devices. The complexity of collecting signals from
a large number of sensors over a large area necessitates signal multiplexing electronics that need to be printed on flexible
substrate or structure. As a result, these components are subjected to same deformation, temperature and other
parameters for which sensor arrays are designed. The characteristics of these electronic components, such as transistors,
are affected by deformation and other environmental parameters which can lead to erroneous sensed parameters. The
manufacturing and functional challenges of the technology of printed sensor array systems for structural state monitoring
are the focus of this presentation. Specific examples of strain sensor arrays will be presented to highlight the technical
challenges.
The interest in "morphing" structures that can undergo drastic shape changes has steadily grown in recent years. This
paper considers a particular type of morphing structure that can exhibit significant modulus change, enabling the
deformation to occur with low applied forces (and low stress in the material). Specifically, shape memory polymer is
used as the enabling material, and it is transitioned from hard to soft to allow deformation, then returned to its hard state
after deformation to carry structural loads. Given the large deformations of these types of structures, conventional linear
mechanics models are not adequate to predict the behavior or to be used as design tools. This paper explores the use of
quasi-static three-dimensional nonlinear finite element modeling to study the force deformation behavior of a morphing
link. The modeling approach for the morphing process is shown to produce results that are representative of
experimental observations. In addition, capabilities are explored to use the numerical methods to study the potential of
partial transitioning of the link, in which only a portion of the shape memory polymer material is transitioned. By
transitioning only a portion of the link, the power and transition time can be reduced without compromising the applied
forces or final shape, and the functionality of the link can be increased as well. The results point to the nonlinear
modeling as a promising tool for optimizing the design and operation of morphing structures.
Advanced composites are being used increasingly in state-of-the-art aircraft and aerospace structures. In spite of their
many advantages composite materials are highly susceptible to hidden flaws that may occur at any time during the life
cycle of a structure and if undetected, may cause sudden and catastrophic failure of the entire structure. An example of
such a defects critical structural component is the "honeycomb composite" in which thin composite skins are bonded
with adhesives to the two faces of extremely lightweight and relatively thick metallic honeycombs. These components
are often used in aircraft and aerospace structures due to their high strength to weight ratio. Unfortunately, the bond
between the honeycomb and the skin may degrade with age and service loads leading to separation of the load-bearing
skin from the honeycomb (called "disbonds") and compromising the safety of the structure. This paper is concerned with
the noninvasive detection of disbonds using ultrasonic guided waves. Laboratory experiments are carried out on a
composite honeycomb specimen containing localized disbonded regions. Ultrasonic waves are launched into the
specimen using a broadband PZT transducer and are detected by a distributed array of identical transducers located on
the surface of the specimen. The guided wave components of the signals are shown to be very strongly influenced by the
presence of a disbond. The experimentally observed results are being used to develop an autonomous scheme to locate
the disbonds and to estimate their size.
Reconfigurable and morphing structures may provide significant improvement in overall platform performance through
optimization over broad operating conditions. The realization of this concept requires structures, which can
accommodate the large deformations necessary with modest weight and strength penalties. Other studies suggest
morphing structures need new materials to realize the benefits that morphing may provide. To help meet this need, we
have developed novel composite materials based on specially designed segmented reinforcement and shape memory
polymer matrices that provide unique combinations of deformation and stiffness properties. To tailor and optimize the
design and fabrication of these materials for particular structural applications, one must understand the envelope of
morphing material properties as a function of microstructural architecture and constituent properties. Here we extend our
previous simulations of these materials by using 3D models to predict stiffness and deformation properties in variable
stiffness segmented composite materials. To understand the effect of various geometry tradeoffs and constituent
properties on the elastic stiffness in both the high and low stiffness states, we have performed a trade study using a
commercial FEA analysis package. The modulus tensor is constructed and deformation properties are computed from
representative volume elements (RVE) in which all (6) basic loading conditions are applied. Our test matrix consisted of
four composite RVE geometries modeled using combinations of 5 SMP and 3 reinforcement elastic moduli. Effective
composite stiffness and deformation results confirm earlier evidence of the essential performance tradeoffs of reduced
stiffness for increasing reversible strain accommodation with especially heavy dependencies on matrix modulus and
microstructural architecture. Furthermore, our results show these laminar materials are generally orthotropic and indicate
that previous calculations of matrix gap and interlaminar strains based on kinematic approximations are accurate to
within 10-20% for many material systems. We compare these models with experimental results for a narrow geometry
and material set to show the accuracy of the models as compared to physical materials. Our simulations indicate that
improved shape memory polymer materials could enable a composite material that can accommodate ~30% strain with a
cold state stiffness of ~30GPa. This would improve the current state of the art 5-10x and significantly reduce the weight
and stiffness costs of using a morphing component.
This investigation addresses basic characterization of a shape memory polymer (SMP) as a suitable structural material for morphing aircraft applications. Tests were performed for monotonic loading in high shear at constant temperature, well below, or just above the glass transition temperature. The SMP properties were time-and temperature-dependent. Recovery by the SMP to its original shape needed to be unfettered. Based on the testing SMPs appear to be an attractive and promising component in the solution for a skin material of a morphing aircraft. Their multiple state abilities allow them to easily change shape and, once cooled, resist large loads.
In this paper embedding of surface mount pressure and temperature sensors in the Carbon fiber composites are described. A commercially available surface mount pressure and temperature sensor are used for embedding in a composite lay- up of IM6/HST-7, IM6/3501 and AS4/E7T1-2 prepregs. The fabrication techniques developed here are the focus of this paper and provide for a successful embedding procedure of pressure sensors in fibrous composites. The techniques for positioning and insulating, the sensor and the lead wires, from the conductive carbon prepregs are described and illustrated. Procedural techniques are developed and discussed for isolating the sensor's flow-opening, from the exposure to the prepreg epoxy flow and exposure to the fibrous particles, during the autoclave curing of the composite laminate. The effects of the autoclave cycle (if any) on the operation of the embedded pressure sensor are discussed.
This paper considers a wireless approach to health and usage monitoring of advanced composite materials. It uses a modular approach supporting, in particular, high performance system fabricated with composite panels fastened to an underlying frame. The panels are fabricated so as to include integrated circuit (IC) sensors placed in the various prepreg layers during layup. Various aspects in the development and performance of these IC sensors are described in the paper. Since the embedded sensors do not include an internal power source, interrogator circuitry has also been developed. This unit supplies power to sensor within the composite panel and obtains transducer data from the sensors, both via wireless techniques. This unit and its interface to the embedded sensors are discussed. Finally, a description is given of expected overall system monitoring using the sensor and interrogator devices being presented.
The ongoing research and development of cost effective technology for remotely queried sensors for health and usage monitoring of composite structures has lead to the application of electrically conductive thermoplastic adhesive films. This paper intends to provide an in depth overview of a newly developed technology for the design and manufacturing of smart structures by introducing the application of electrically conductive thermoplastic adhesive films. The current technology is discussed and compared with this newly developed technology. It is shown that the structural aspects of this new technology are advantageous to smart structures' concept as a whole. Fabrication and manufacturing techniques for this new technology is discussed including the suitability of the process for automation. Specifically, standard tensile testing of the manufactured composite coupons with embedded thermoplastic conductive adhesive films has been performed and compared to the test results from copper embedded coupons. The effect of embedded thermoplastic stripes on stiffness as well as strength of the parent laminated- structure is evaluated and discussed. Further, fatigue testing has been done at various ultimate failure strength percentiles to determine some degree of the fatigue life of the composite and the embedded conductive and insulting films. The conductive thermoplastic films are found to be structurally superior to copper when embedded in a composite structure but the electrical conductivity is not as good as copper or other metallic conductors.
Carbon fibers used in advanced composite structures are piezoresistive. These fibers are inherently sensors because of this property. Therefore, carbon fiber reinforced polymer (CFRP) composites can be considered a self-monitoring material without any need for additional sensing elements. However for this to become reality the conductivity map of the entire structure needs to be constructed and relationship between the conductivity and various usage and damage related variables need to be established. Experimental results are given to demonstrate that internal damage, such as fiber fracture and delamination, decreases the conductivity of the composite laminates. In general the information about the damage size and position can be obtained by utilizing electrical impedance tomography (EIT). But the traditional EIT is not capable of extracting this information when the medium possesses highly anisotropic electrical conductivity. Above a certain level of anisotropy it is advantageous to modify the traditional EIT. This paper presents preliminary results from the modified EIT applied to highly orthotropic (unidirectional) CFRP. These results indicate that a practical EIT has a potential of being a cost effective health and usage monitoring technique (HUMT) for CFRPs.
This paper describes various concepts that might be used for controlling the flight of hypersonic vehicles using smart and unconventional structures. These concepts are developed by looking at basic ways of generating maneuvering forces on a hypersonic vehicle, then examining how those forces might be controlled using smart or unconventional structures. The list of maneuvering concepts was made as complete as possible by including both conventional and novel means of controlling a hypersonic vehicle regardless of their suitability for present day smart materials. A preliminary comparison is made to select the more promising concepts based on novelty, amount of maneuvering force generated, and technical hurdles which must be overcome. A comprehensive list of references is included to better describe the various maneuvering concepts.
Lead, Zirconate, Titanate ceramics undergo polarization switching under electric fields, resulting in polarization hysteresis and strain butterfly loops. In addition, compressive stress inputs lead to ferroelastic 90 degree(s) polarization switching which interacts with the ferroelectric switching under the combined electric fields and stress inputs. In this paper, the phenomenological scalar Preisach model is modified consistent with the above physical phenomena to simulate the polarization and strain loops under the combined electric field and stress inputs. The hysterons that are used in the classical Preisach model are modified to take into account the effect of stress inputs and the effect of polarization switching. Simulations are carried out and the model is suggested as a simulation tool for nonlinear transformations occurring in materials.
A sensor at a fixed location in a complex structure records a complicated but unique wave pattern containing information about impact location, imparted energy and any damage created by an impact event. An intelligently designed hybrid neural network system is capable of extracting this information from the sensory signal. Such a system based on a generalized regression neural network (GRNN) is described for the purpose of impact location, energy, and damage detection. A Northrop Grumman test article is utilized to demonstrate capabilities of the system. The system performance evaluation based on the preliminary experiments is very encouraging. Further experimental evaluations of the system are planned and are described in this manuscript.
The preliminary design of aeroelastically tailored adaptive missile fins for supersonic speeds is presented. Due to the extreme operating environment of supersonic flight including high temperatures and pressures, a successful supersonic smart missile fin design has been more difficult to develop than previously developed subsonic smart missile fins. Currently research at the University of Texas at Arlington is being conducted to develop a light-weight, low-cost, smart missile fin capable of surviving the supersonic operating environment while providing performance comparable to existing missile fins. Efforts are being concentrated on using aeroelastic tailoring to enhance the effectiveness of existing actuators using smart structures, allowing a lower total actuator weight with better utilization of missile internal volume. Previous work (Barrett) has used piezoelectric elements to apply span-wise twist to a fixed fin or deflect an all-moving fin around a fixed spar. This research attempts to identify improvements and alternative designs for the all-moving smart fin to enable it to be used at supersonic speeds. Various techniques to reduce the control surface hinge moment are presented and compared to attempt to reduce control forces which allow smaller actuators to be used. Future work will focus on improved analysis of the aerodynamic interactions and the elimination of fuselage mounted actuators by the use of a combination of smart fin technologies.
A survey of current literature was performed and vehicle designers from the aerospace industry were polled to examine how state of the art smart structural concepts could improve the design of hypersonic vehicles. Several types of hypersonic vehicles; including winged single stage to orbit, sub-orbital cruise aircraft, and supersonic/hypersonic missiles have demanding airframe and systems requirements which may not be sufficiently met with traditional structural designs. The use of smart structures is examined to improve vehicle performance in areas such as active vibration control, noise reduction, vehicle attitude control, structural cooling, and engine performance. The operating environment of hypersonic vehicles are examined and the capabilities of currently used structural materials and actuators are compared with those of smart materials and structures. Possible smart structures applications are presented as modifications to existing designs as well as new structural concepts. Conclusions are made on the suitability of various smart structures concepts for current and future hypersonic applications.
A novel method of monitoring damage in structures is presented. The concept utilizes an electronically steered acoustic beam produced by an array of interdigital transducers placed in the structure. The acoustic beam is scattered by the damage, and therefore the scattered signal received by the array contains detailed information about the damage. A brief discussion of resolution and accuracy of the damage detection by acoustic waves is presented followed by the basic aspects of beam formation, array aperture and electronic beam steering. The description of cross-field interdigital piezoelectric transducers to produce bulk waves of sufficient strength is also included. The aspects that make the proposed concept different and desirable with respect to the prevalent nondestructive testing by external ultrasonic transducer are presented as the concluding remarks.
Bulk waves can be created in a thin piezoelectric plate by applying an electrical signal to interdigital electrodes deposited on each side of the plate. These transducers can be used to generate ultrasonic bulk waves with a wide range of frequencies and amplitudes controlled by a number of electrodes and a delayed voltage independently applied to each electrode. The current work centers on feasibility study of damage detection via amplified ultrasonic signals generated by interdigital transducers. To this end, finite element simulation of the generation and detection of bulk waves in piezoelectric substrates by means of interdigital transducers is presented and their potential application as probes in smart structures is also discussed.
Longitudinal and shear waves are produced in structure by using piezoceramic transducers. These elastic waves have been used to obtain effective elastic properties of the medium or are used to detect localized damage. Elastic wave generation in a beam by surface-mounted piezoceramic patches is described in this paper. Preliminary experimental and analytical results are presented and discussed qualitatively. Longitudinal and flexural waves are generated by surface mounted piezoceramic patches. Numerical procedures are developed and preliminary simulation results are presented and qualitatively compared with experimental observation.
Smart structures can be developed using a variety of sensors and actuators such as piezoelectric, fiber-optic, acoustic, and pyroelectric materials, etc. A piezoelectric material produces electric charge when it is mechanically deformed and conversely, an electric potential causes mechanical deformation of the material. The main thrust of research in the area of smart structures has been in vibration control and geometric shape manipulation. Finite element analysis techniques have been introduced recently in vibration suppression and modal control. In the present study a finite element formulation is developed to analyze laminated plates with arbitrarily placed piezoceramic patches. The technique is applied to obtain static response and stress fields due to application of electric field to the piezoceramic patches.
The desire to counteract impact loads on laminated structures in order to reduce ply damage has recently led to research using smart materials in laminated composites. The ability to sense the onset of these impact loads using piezoelectric material is the first step in the damage control process. This research focuses on smart laminated plates under impact and the electric field created by piezoelectric patches in the structure. A modified version of an existing finite element program is used to numerically simulate a laminated plate under a low velocity impact. Linear constitutive relations are used in the program which calculate the electric field generated by the in-plane strains on the piezoelectric plies. Several studies are made comparing the electric field generated by patches of piezoelectric material of varying size, shape, and location within the plate. The average electric field generated by larger patches which contain more oscillations of electric field filters the high frequency components. The distance between the impacting point and the piezoelectric sensor is found to be directly related to the lag time between the impact and generation of an electric field.
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