In contrast to conventional optical systems, which are optimized for wavelength-independent imaging, hyperchromats aim for strongly wavelength-dependent focal lengths. In this contribution, the design parameters of hyperchromatic two-lens optical systems were derived that provide strong axial color splitting expressed by extremely low equivalent Abbe numbers. These systems have been investigated for compositions of either pure refractive or all diffractive lenses, as well as hybrid configurations thereof. First, lens doublets made of cemented elements are considered and the variables affecting the equivalent Abbe number of the system are investigated. In particular, the influence of the focal lengths of the individual lenses and the Abbe numbers of the selected lens materials are taken into account. The best parameter-sets were determined by paraxial numerical simulations for different cemented configurations. To ensure a simple implementation, especially to avoid exotic or potentially harmful materials, only readily available inorganic standard glasses were considered. In the next phase of this investigation an air gap was inserted between the two lenses, which is an additional influence parameter on the equivalent Abbe number. Following the paraxial considerations, selected two-lens configurations were transferred to the non-paraxial domain and refined using optical design software, also taking aberrations into account. To further reduce achievable equivalent Abbe numbers, an aspherical surface was introduced to compensate for spherical aberrations. Finally, for the refractive doublets an equivalent Abbe number of 2.4 was achieved, which corresponds to only 12% of the smallest Abbe number of the selected materials. This result was even surpassed by the hybrid hyperchromat, resulting in an extraordinary minimum equivalent Abbe number of -0.6 that is more than five times smaller than the Abbe number of diffractive lenses.
Filter-based spectral detectors convince with their simple concept, an extremely compact and robust design and the possibility to adapt the addressed spectral range and the resolution to the individual application requirements. Unfortunately, these filter-based sensors usually suffer from low detection efficiency. In this contribution we discuss and compare different methods that allow to substantially increase the detection efficiency of filter-based spectral sensors. An initial concept is based on a wavelength-dependent redistribution of the incident light before it reaches the individual filter elements of the array. This approach allows a substantial increase in detection efficiency, but requires additional dichroic elements in the beam path. An alternative approach uses a folded beam path architecture and completely waives additional dichroic elements. This approach is not only suitable for filter-based spectral sensors, but can also be transferred to increase the efficiency of hyperspectral imaging systems.
Echelle-inspired cross-grating spectrometers try to combine the high performance of classical Echelle spectrometers and the small footprint of compact line-grating spectrometers. Therefore, a cross-grating is used which is a superposition of two perpendicularly oriented line gratings in a single element. Highly resolved, but overlapping, diffractions orders are created by the main grating, which are separated by the cross-disperser. This powerful approach is connected to different challenges concerning the optical design, the fabrication of the cross-grating and implementation of the device. These challenges are addressed by a compact and rigid double-pass design, which utilizes the same refractive elements for collimation of the incoming beam and focusing of the diffracted light on the detector. This contribution gives an overview on the design and focusses on the implementation of the spectrometer. This includes on one hand the mounting of the cross-grating and the refractive elements in a rigid objective group and, on the other hand, the adjustment of the objective to the entrance fiber and the 2D detector. Furthermore, the implemented and calibrated instrument allows to conduct several validating experimental tests in order to proof the working principle. The spectrometer addresses a spectral range from 400 nm to 1100 nm and reaches a resolving power of 300 with an entrance pinhole diameter of 105 μm. An even higher resolving power of more than 1000 is reached with a reduced pinhole diameter of approximately 5 μm.
This contribution addresses an alternative lithographic technique for the tailored fabrication of rotationally symmetric meso- and microscale optical components. A variable ring-shaped light distribution is created by an axicon-pair based zoom-concept and can be used for the manufacturing of single optical components and array elements as well. First, design considerations of the basic axicon system and the achievable system characteristics are discussed. In particular, minimum and maximum ring diameter depending on axicon angle variations and displacement distance of employed axicons as well as potential deviations from the telecentricity condition are considered. Additionally, further aspects concerning the system implementation are presented, e.g. the achievable resolution which is dependent on the entrance pinhole. Finally, the performance of the system is presented by demonstrating the fabrication of exemplary meso- and microscale structures.
A method to drastically enhance detection efficiency of a linear variable filter (LVF) sensor across an extended and continuous wavelength range is presented. The efficiency is increased by a wavelength preselection concept, where the incoming light is divided into partial spectra to reduce otherwise unavoidable reflection losses of filter-based spectrometers. The simple but effective setup uses selected and successively arranged dichroic beamsplitters, which ensures an optimized compromise between efficiency enhancement and minimum increasing complexity. When connected to a two-dimensional camera and combined with a tilted LVF, this compact optical system allows the continuous recording of the full wavelength range between 450 and 850 nm with a resolution of ∼19 nm at 508.6 nm. An efficiency enhancement factor of up to 5.7 is achieved in comparison to a conventional LVF setup. The working principle was verified by measuring the reflection spectra of different natural and artificial green leaves. The proposed approach for increasing the efficiency can be miniaturized and applied to a broad range of other filter-based sensors.
In this work, we present a calibration procedure of a multispectral snapshot camera, which is based on a multi-aperture system approach combined with a slanted linear variable spectral filter. The ultra-compact multispectral imaging system exploits state of the art micro-optical manufacturing techniques on wafer-level, which leads to a size of only 60 × 60 ×28 mm3. The setup enables the single-shot acquisition of 66 spectral channels with a linear spectral sampling over an extended wavelength range of 450-850 nm and a spatial sampling of 400×400 pixels per channel at a large field of view of 68°. In particular, we propose a spectral and spatial calibration procedure in order to extract hyperspectral data cubes from the acquired raw image and further, to analyze characteristic system parameters. Finally, we demonstrate the systems capabilities for advanced object classification using characteristic spectral indices by utilizing a customized multispectral analysis.
Optical systems for remote sensing commonly employ the principle of multi-/hyperspectral imaging, which is based on the acquisition of a set of two-dimensional images with distinct spectral bands in the ultra-violet, visible and/or infrared domain. Novel applications in the fields of environmental and agricultural monitoring, surveillance and biomedical inspection require miniaturized systems with high spectral and spatial sampling that furthermore enable a single shot image acquisition. However, conventional high resolution multi-spectral imaging solutions rely on bulky setups and depend on scanning techniques. In this work, we propose a multi-spectral imaging concept based on a multi-aperture system approach combined with a slanted linear variable spectral filter in order to overcome these restrictions. In particular, we demonstrate the optical design, fabrication and testing of a highly-compact, cost-effective multispectral imaging system, which exploits state of the art micro-optical manufacturing techniques on wafer level. The developed demonstration system incorporates a conventional full-frame format image sensor, a commercially available linear variable spectral filter and a customized microlens-array. In addition, a tailored baffle array is utilized for preventing optical crosstalk between adjacent optical channels. The setup enables the single-shot acquisition of 66 spectral channels with a linear spectral sampling over an extended wavelength range of 450-850 nm. The compact system with a size of only 60 x 60 x 28 mm3 provides a large field of view of 68° and a spatial sampling of 400x400 pixels per channel. Finally, we demonstrate its capabilities for advanced object classification by utilizing a customized multispectral analysis tool.
Pushbroom hyperspectral imaging systems require relative motion with respect to the target for hyperspectral data acquisition by means of spatial scanning, which increases the equipment cost and limits the application scenarios. We address this by introducing a pushbroom system with an internal line-scanning unit consisting of a slit aperture mounted on a piezoelectric linear motor. Different slit positions have tilted incidence angles at the grating, resulting in shifts of diffraction patterns relative to the imaging sensor. We demonstrate a method to compensate this shift by using a rotating arm controlled by a stepper motor to reposition the camera based on slit position.
A binary Fresnel Zone Axilens (FZA) is designed for the infinite conjugate mode and the phase profile of a refractive axicon is combined with it to generate a composite Diffractive Optical Element (DOE). The FZA designed for two focal lengths generates a line focus along the propagation direction extending between the two focal planes. The ring pattern generated by the axicon is focused through this distance and the radius of the ring depends on the propagation distance. Hence, the radius of the focused ring pattern can be tuned, during the design process, within the two focal planes. The integration of the two functions was carried out by shifting the location of zones of FZA with respect to the phase profile of the refractive axicon resulting in a binary composite DOE. The FZAs and axicons were designed for different focal depth values and base angles respectively, in order to achieve different ring radii within the focal depth of each element. The elements were simulated using scalar diffraction formula and their focusing characteristics were analyzed. The DOEs were fabricated using electron beam direct writing and evaluated using a fiber coupled diode laser. The tunable ring patterns generated by the DOEs have prospective applications in microdrilling as well as microfabrication of circular diffractive and refractive optical elements.
In this contribution we simulate theoretically the resulting 3D Talbot-carpets of different initial close-packed 2D
mask structures. Especially, we investigate the transition from regular periodic to quasi-periodic tessellations. For
the pure periodic mask structure a hexagonally tessellation was selected. The calculated field distribution adjacent to
the mask still shows a lateral six-fold symmetry but also a rather complex characteristics in the propagation
direction. In particular, the appearance and the repetition of self-imaging planes deviate significantly from the
classical Talbot-effect.
For the quasi-periodic tessellation a Penrose tapestry based on rhombus pairs was chosen. A pronounced lateral fivefold
symmetry becomes visible in the field distribution. In the propagation direction dominant planes with increased
intensity are observed clearly, but, instead of a simple periodicity, a complex behavior becomes obvious. The
numerical algorithm used in our simulations is based on a modified angular spectrum method, in which Bluestein's
fast Fourier (FFT) algorithm is applied. This approach allows to decouple the sampling points in the real space and
in the spatial frequency domain so that both parameter can be chosen independently. The introduced fast and flexible
algorithm requires a minimized number of numerical steps and a minimal computation time, but still offers high
accuracy.
Imaging diffractive optical elements (DOEs), randomly distributed microlenses and sub-λ-structures allow
the improvement of the performance of Excimer-based imaging and illumination systems. Here we present
the concept study of a hybrid imaging system for Excimer laser high power application at a working
wavelength of 308 nm. In this hybrid approach a focus has to be put onto the impact of the non-desired
diffraction orders to the optical performance and also to the amount of light remaining in the system and
causing lens heating. Hereby the diffraction efficiency of the DOE is of enormous importance. Especially
the influence of the passive facet of blazed transmission gratings has to be considered. For illumination
systems we discuss the transfer of the uneven raw profile of an Excimer-laser into a Gaussian far-field
distribution by introducing a microlens array with a 2-dimensional Voronoi-pattern. The holographic
record of the microlens array allows additionally to influence the coherence parameters.
In this contribution we are focusing on two challenges concerning the development of new spectrometer concepts. First,
we present different concepts to adjust or even to increase the detection efficiency of spectrometer modules over a broad
spectral range. The discussion involves a spectral recycling loop, a reflective multilayer approach for efficiency
achromatization and a concept based on spectral pre-selection. The second focus of this contribution concerns the
miniaturization of spectrometer setups. We present a highly compact imaging miniature spectrometer module for
applications that allow a very limited installation volume. The miniature spectrometer has an optical volume of just 11 x
6 x 5 mm3. The implementation of the spectroscopic "multi-order principle", which exploits successive diffraction
orders, means that the central stress field between high spectral resolution and a large bandwidth can be dissolved. The
manufacturing process of the spectrometer includes the mastering of the concave grating by interference lithography, the
tooling and the replication process by injection molding.
Micro and nanostructured optical components are evolved over millions of years in nature and show a wide application
range as microlens arrays, diffractive or subwavelength structures in manifold biological systems. In this contribution we
discuss the advantages and challenges to transfer the concepts based on the nature models to increase the performance of
high-end optical systems in applications such as beam shaping and imaging. Especially we discuss the application of
sophisticated statistical microlens arrays and diffractive structures in different fields such as lithography, inspection or
for medical instruments. Additionally we focus on anti-reflection coatings which are commonly used to suppress
reflection of light from the surface of optical components in the visible range. We report an innovative approach for the
fast and cost-efficient fabrication of highly UV transmissive, anti-reflective optical interfaces based on self assembled
gold nanoparticles.
The performance predictions and optimization of blazed diffraction gratings are key issues for their application in hybrid
optical systems, both in the case of imaging and analyzing systems. Scalar and vectorial theories are often used for a first
performance estimation whenever applicable. However, in the intermediate structure regime, characterized by a grating
period within the transition from the validity of the scalar to the fully electromagnetic theory, rigorous numerical
simulations are inevitable for accurate modeling of blaze structures with sawtooth-shaped profiles. A variety of
electromagnetic algorithms exists to determine the diffraction efficiency, such as integral equation methods, finite
element methods or rigorous coupled-wave analyses. An effect known as shadowing occurs and has a significant
influence on the diffraction efficiency of the blazed grating. A simple but accurate model describing the shadowing
phenomena would be of enormous practical importance for the optical design of hybrid systems. Commonly, dielectric
transmission gratings are regarded, when the efficiency behavior due to shadowing is discussed. We succeeded in filling
the modeling gap in the intermediate structure regime and have derived a rigorous-based semi-analytical model for
dielectric gratings. We are able to extend this model to the case of metallic reflection gratings. For both types of gratings,
we find that the blaze efficiency obeys a linear dependence on the ratio of blaze wavelength to grating period, which
dominates the performance in the first diffraction order. We define the linear coefficient of shadowing strength and
discuss its dependence on the material properties.
We present a new method for the fabrication of diffractive and refractive micro-optical components. The method is suitable for high-quality rapid prototyping of optical components and allows the fast experimental test of designs for computer-generated holograms or refractive microstructures. Our method is based on employing a digital-multimirror device (DMD) as a switchable projection mask. The DMD is imaged into a photoresist layer using a Carl Zeiss lithography objective with a demagnification of 10:1 and a numerical aperture of 0.32 on the image side. The resulting pixel size is 1.368×1.368 µm. In comparison with laser direct writing with a single spot, our method is a parallel processing of nearly 800,000 pixels (1024×768 pixels). This fabrication method can be applied to all MOEMS components. The method adds a new dimension in MOEMS processing, reducing the fabrication complexity, and improves the flexibility of process simulation and design.
The "AIMS fab 193" tool is an aerial image measurement system for ArF-lithography emulation and is in operation worldwide. By adjustment of numerical aperture, illumination type and partial coherence parameter to match the conditions in 193nm steppers or scanners, it can emulate lithographic exposure tools for any type of reticles such as binary masks, OPC and phase shift structures, down to the 65nm node. The AIMSTM fab 193 allows the rapid prediction of wafer printability of critical features, such as dense patterns or contacts, defects or repairs on masks without the need to prepare real wafer prints using the stepper or scanner. Recently, a high resolution mode has been introduced based on a sophisticated microscope objective, characterized by a high numerical aperture (NA) and large working distance that allows working with pellicle mounted mask. With this lens system a high contrast image with resolution down to 150 nm lines and spaces (L/S) on mask has been demonstrated. In addition to the AIMSTM through-focus mode for printability which is optically equivalent to the latent image in the photo resist of a wafer, the high resolution mode allows the imaging of mask structures in focus and at printing wavelength to review defects or repairs. Such viewing capability is also helpful at the binary stage of a first writing step in the mask manufacturing process. In this work we will present application results for defects and critical features using both, aerial imaging and high resolution mode.
The capability of a high NA, large working distance, microscope objective was demonstrated by investigating different mask features. The microscope objective is based on a hybrid concept combining diffractive and refractive optical elements. Resolution down to 125 nm lines and spaces (L/S) is demonstrated by investigating periodic chrome on glass structures. A significant additional improvement of the resolution is achieved by inducing a solid immersion lens (SIL).
In this paper we present recent spectroscopic studies using a Solid Immersion Lens for Fluorescent Correlation Spectroscopy measurements. We compare the performance of the Solid Immersion Lens confocal microscope built-up in our group to the performance of a conventional confocal microscope used for FCS. The novelty of the new SIL-FCS microscope is a system containing a conventional objective (NA = 0.6) combined with a Solid Immersion Lens used for single molecule experiment. Important parameters for single molecule experiments such as collection efficiency and excitation field confinement are investigated for different modes of the SIL objective system.
The Aerial Image Measurement System (AIMS) for 193 nm lithography emulation has been brought into operation worldwide successfully. Adjusting optical equivalent settings to steppers/scanners the AIMS system for 193 nm allows to emulate any type of reticles for 193 nm lithography. The overall system performance is demonstrated by AIMS measurements at 193 nm wavelength on binary chrome masks and phase shift masks. Especially for evaluation of 65 nm node lithography performance process window results will be discussed. An ArF excimer laser is in use for illumination. Therefore a beam homogenizer is needed to reduce the speckles in the laser beam and ensure a similar illumination uniformity as the longer wavelength systems, 248 nm and longer, using an arc source. A new beam homogenizing technique will be presented and illumination results compared to the current solution. The latest results on enhanced illumination uniformity exceed the current performance. A newly developed hybrid objective for high resolution imaging is tested for use of high resolution imaging in order to review defects and investigate repairs which do not print under stepper equivalent optical settings. An outlook will be given for extension of 193 nm aerial imaging down to the 45 nm node. Polarization effects will be discussed.
The Aerial Image Measurement System (AIMS) for 193 nm lithography emulation has been brought into operation successfully worldwide. By adjustment of illumination type, numerical aperture and partial coherence to match the conditions in 193 nm steppers or scanners, AIMS can emulate for any type of reticles like binary, OPC and phase shift. AIMS allows a rapid prediction of wafer printability of critical features, like dense patterns or contacts, defects or repairs on the masks without the need to do real wafer prints using the cost intensive lithography equipment. Therefore, AIMS is a mask quality verification standard for high-end masks established in mask shops worldwide. With smaller nodes, where design rules are below 100 nm and low k1 factors are used in the lithography process, the increasing printability of even smaller defects on reticles is becoming a serious problem. The evaluation of defect printability using AIMS becomes a significant aid and cost-saving technique to be applied directly in the wafer fab. The overall measurement capability of the 193 nm AIMS system will be demonstrated by measurements at 193 nm wavelength on attenuated phase shift masks. Excellent illumination uniformity is crucial for quantitative analysis of AIMS measurements such as CD variation or defect printability. To reduce disturbing speckle formation of the highly coherent ArF excimer laser a new beam homogenizing technique which contains motionless parts only will be presented as well as illumination homogeneity results compared to the current solution using a spinning scattering disk. The latest results on illumination performance exceed the current results especially with respect to illumination uniformity over the field. The improved performance will enable improved measurement capability down to the 65 nm node. An outlook will be given for extension of 193 nm aerial imaging down to the 45 nm node emulating immersion scanners.
We present a new method for the fabrication of diffractive and refractive microoptical components. The method is suitable for low-volume production, process development, high quality rapid prototyping of optical components and allows the fast experimental test of designs for a wide variety of different microoptical components e.g. computer generated holograms, blazed diffraction gratings or refrative microstructures. Our method is based on employing a computer-controlled digital-multi-micromirror device (DMD) as a switchable projection mask. The DMD is imaged into a photoresist layer using a Carl Zeiss lithography objective with a demagnification of 10:1 and a numerical aperture of 0.32 on the image side. The resulting pixel-size is 1.36 μm x 1.36μm. In comparison with laser direct writing with a single spot our method is a parallel processing of nearly 800000 pixels (1024 x 768).
The challenge in designing a complex optical system for the deep-UV regime is a consequence of the limited material selection combined with the demand of cement free optical groups. Especially for optical mask inspection where the presence of a protecting pellicle requires a long working distance an all-refractive solution for a high NA objective seems to be critical. The combination of diffractive and refractive components to a hybrid optical system offers the advantageous possibility to overcome the addressed limitations. Here we present the realization of a hybrid microscope objective with a working distance of 7.8 mm and a numerical aperture of 0.65 for 193 nm mask evaluation. Despite the relative large bandwidth of 0.5 nm the use of calcium fluoride is not necessary but all components are based on fused silica. The small number of employed optical elements leads to a compact volume concept. The realized objective fits in a conventional mask evaluation tool. Classical refractive approaches didn't succeed in the simultaneous realization of all these critical specifications. For the realization of the diffractive optical element as the most determining element, a sophisticated holographic lithography process with a subsequent ion-etching technique was introduced.
Diffractive optical elements (DOEs) have a great potential in the complete or partial substitution of refractive or reflective optical elements in imaging systems. The greater design flexibility compared to an all-refractive/reflective solution allows a more convenient realization of the optical systems and additionally opens up new possibilities for optimizing the performance or compactness.
To demonstrate the opportunities of the hybrid optical concept we discuss different imaging systems for various applications. We present the lens design of a hybrid microscope objective which is especially applicable for wafer inspection technologies. Meeting the requirements for such a system used in the deep-UV regime (248 nm) is very challenging. The short wavelength limits the material selection and demands cement free optical groups. The additional requirement of an autofocus system, working at a wavelength in the near infrared region, is fulfilled by the special combination of two selected and adjusted DOEs. Furthermore, we discuss the opportunities of the hybrid
concept c of a slit lamp used for ophthalmologic examinations.
The DOEs are the basic elements of this hybrid concept. We demonstrate that holographic lithography is an appropriate technology to realize a wide variety of elements with different profile geometries. We address in particular the additional possibilities of an UV-laser system as an exposure tool. Additionally to the high spatial frequencies, the 266 nm exposure wavelength allows the use of novel photo resists with advantageous development behavior.
The image quality of an inspection microscope depends strongly on the performance of the illumination system. Especially in the case of laser-based illumination it is necessary to transform the original beam profile into a homogeneous light spot with a flat top field distribution. Simultaneously, speckles caused by the coherence of the laser have to be reduced. Here we discuss different ways to homogenize the multi mode beam profile of a pulsed compact 157 nm excimer laser. A variety of setups, combining dynamic acting diffusers, microlens arrays and primary lenses were realized and characterized in several geometrical arrangements. The homogenizers were evaluated and characterized especially with respect to the statistical behavior on the integrated pulse number.
Monitoring biological relevant reactions on the single molecule level by the use of fluorescent probes has become one of the most promising approaches for understanding a variety of phenomena in living organisms. By applying techniques of fluorescence spectroscopy to labelled molecules a manifold of different parameters becomes accessible i.e. molecular dynamics, energy transfer, DNA fingerprinting, etc... can be monitored at the molecular level.
However, many of these optical methods rely on oversimplified assumptions, for example a three-dimensional Gaussian observation volume, perfect overlap volume for different wavelength, etc. which are not valid approximations under many common measurement conditions. As a result, these measurements will contain significant, systematic artifacts, which limit their performance and information content.
Based on Fluorescence Correlation Spectroscopy (FCS) and Fluorescence Lifetime Spectroscopy we will present representative examples including a thorough signal analysis with a strong emphasis on the underlying optical principles and limitations. An outlook to biochip applications, parallel FCS and parallel Lifetime measurements will be given with cross links to optical concepts and technologies used in industrial inspection.
We suggest an optical system for beam homogenization and speckle reduction of spatially highly coherent Laser beams. The new method is applicable to laser beams with moderate temporal coherence. Based on the finite temporal coherence the spatial coherence is reduced prior to the homogenizer component. The new design was experimentally tested for ArF - Excimer laser at 193nm. For this Deep UV application we used silicon micromirrors in combination with fused silica microlenses with a pitch of 150 μm . In contrast to former fly's eye homogenizers for laser beams the new method employs a large number of sub-apertures even for lasers with high spatial coherence. This results in a speckle free and uniform intensity distribution in the target plane. Furthermore the pupil filling can be increased drastically. Experimental results for a DUV microscopy application are presented and discussed.
Solid Immersion Lenses (SILs) have an outstanding potential for applications in future generations of optical data storage systems. We report the realization of a diffractive Solid Immersion Lens (dSIL) which is the diffractive analog of the refractive hemispherical SIL. Here, inside the medium the propagation angles of the first order diffracted waves point in the same direction as the incident angles from outside the SIL. We realized two types of dSILs: binary phase elements were fabricated in a highly refracting glass (LaSF35) by direct 3-beam writing and successive reactive ion etching, and dSILs with a blazed profile were manufactured in photoresist by holographic lithography. The minimum distance between adjacent zones in the diffracting structure is in the range of one wavelength. Polarization dependencies and phase impacts have to be consideration in the design of an optical element with features this small. In comparison to the lithographically realized binary phase grating, the holographic elements have the advantage of high diffraction efficiency.
Optical overlay measurement methods are very effective since they are rapid and non-destructive. Imaging techniques need sophisticated image processing and suffer from the wave- optical resolution drawback. Presently, leading edge devices are offered with 5 though 10 nm measuring accuracy. In this paper a method is proposed that relies on the diffraction of a probing laser beam at a periodic reference pattern. This special pattern is implemented in the circuit layout. After the resist patterning of the second of two consecutive layers, the diffraction at the resulting net grating is measured. If an appropriate grating design is chosen, the misalignment error can be directly extracted from the diffraction efficiency. In order to obtain a strong diffraction signal and thus a sufficient signal-to- noise ratio optimum grating designs have been computed by means of rigorous diffraction modeling. Experimental results supported by rigorous modeling suggest that this technique could have the potential to meet next generation overlay accuracy requirements.
Solid immersion microscopy, an optical method with the capability for super-resolution has received a considerable amount of attention in the literature in the past few years. The main targets of the technique are lithography, pattern inspection (including critical dimension measurement) and data storage. The classical theory predicts a resolution gain proportional to the refraction index of the solid immersion lens. The intent of the paper is to prove this prediction by means of simulations and to find optimum measuring conditions. To this end, we present a very efficient, rigorous modeling method. By means of this method, we show that the inclusion of evanescent waves is crucial for the resolution gain. This is detailed with different excitation and detection schemes. Further more, we investigate the impact of polarization and different sample types.
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