The Rocket Experiment Demonstration of a Soft X-ray Polarimeter (REDSoX) is a NASA-funded sounding rocket instrument that can make the first measurement of the linear X-ray polarization of an extragalactic source in the 0.2-0.4 keV band. We employ multilayer-coated mirrors as Bragg reflectors at the Brewster angle. By matching the dispersion of a dispersive spectrometer using critical angle transmission gratings to three laterally graded multilayer mirrors (LGMLs), we achieve polarization modulation factors over 90%. We will describe new prototyping work as well as extensions of the design for an orbital version.
This work is supported in part by NASA grant 80NSSC23K0644.
Optical imagery from space-based telescopes is one of the most valuable tools for understanding various large and small-scale processes on planetary bodies. Whether in orbit around the Earth or another body in the solar system, it is desirable to obtain the highest resolution imagery possible of the central body. The traditional approach to achieving higher resolution imagery is to increase the size of the optical payload’s aperture. However, larger aperture payloads become prohibitively difficult to manufacture and excessively expensive to design, build, launch, and operate. Application of rotating synthetic apertures (RSA), which is a form of dilute aperture imaging system, to space telescope designs have the potential to unlock the design space of low mass and cost, high resolution space telescopes. RSAs employ a high aspect ratio rectangular aperture that is spun about its principal optical axis. A complete image is formed after a 180° rotation during which multiple frames are acquired to fully sample the imaging system’s optical transfer function. The sampling strategy, which involves the number of individual frames captured and the rate of spin about the principal optical axis, is a function of the RSA’s aperture dimensions. The purpose of this work is twofold. First, an expression for resolution in reconstructed images is derived as a function of orbital altitude, RSA aperture dimensions, and amount of spatial oversampling of the target scene. This expression is used to predict potential science data return for a given orbit, RSA design, and sampling strategy. Second, a multi-objective optimization analysis is performed between reconstructed image resolution and optical telescope assembly (OTA) cost from which a Pareto frontier is defined. This analysis informs an ensuing discussion of optimal RSA aperture dimensions for achieving optimal conditions in resolution and cost. Additionally, the effects of different RSA aperture dimensions on sampling strategies are discussed. Based on these results and discussions, a high-level design for an RSA demonstration mission is proposed. Additional presentation content can be accessed on the supplemental content page.
The Large Lenslet Array Magellan Spectrograph (LLAMAS) is a facility-class Integral Field Spectrograph slated for commissioning on the 6.5-meter Magellan Baade telescope in Fall 2022. LLAMAS' Integral Field Unit (IFU) contains a 2400-element microlens array which projects pupil images onto corresponding optical fibers for high fill factor and illumination stability. The IFU subtends a 34" x 34" sky area sampled at 0.75" pitch with ~95% fill. The fibers fan out to eight replicated spectrometers. Each spectrometer covers 350-980nm per exposure at R=2200, split over three separately optimized wavelength channels. A set of 24 thermo-electrically cooled COTS CCD cameras records data for each exposure, with heat loads transferred to a dedicated chilled water loop. We provide a status update on LLAMAS' integration and test, which is in advanced stages. Upon commissioning, LLAMAS will be available to all Magellan users,
and any US investigator through NOIRLab allocation of NSF/MSIP nights.
The REgolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer (REXIS) is a soft x-ray spectrometer and the student collaboration instrument aboard NASA’s OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample return mission. REXIS utilizes MIT Lincoln Laboratory CCID-41 x-ray detectors coated with a directly deposited optical blocking filter (OBF) with a thickness of 320 nm. The aluminum coating, developed at MIT Lincoln Laboratory, is designed to block visible light from the detector, to maintain high sensitivity to soft x-rays in the presence of reflected sunlight from the surface of the target asteroid Bennu. The scientific objective for the REXIS instrument is to measure the stimulated x-ray flux fluoresced from Bennu to discern elemental abundances present on the asteroid’s surface. The coating technique applied for blocking visible light had not previously been used on the CCD-41s in an extended space flight mission. The performance of the OBF on the flight detectors was not characterized before and after environmental stress testing. Therefore, to mature the OBF to technology readiness level (TRL) 6, the flight spare detectors were tested while the instrument was on the way to the asteroid. The flight spare hardware underwent vibration and thermal environmental stress testing to test the durability and effectiveness of the OBF. This testing informed our expectations of the in-flight OBF once it reached the asteroid and helped mature the TRL level of this directly deposited OBF. We discuss the setup and results of those tests and address the performance of the flight OBF at the asteroid. We conclude that depositing an aluminum OBF onto the surface of a charge-coupled device is able to withstand stresses of launch and an extended life-mission in interplanetary space.
We describe an implementation of a broad-band soft X-ray polarimeter, substantially based on previous designs. The Globe-Orbiting Soft X-ray Polarimeter (GOSoX) is a SmallSat. As in a related mission concept the PiSoX Polarimeter, the grating arrangement is designed optimally for the purpose of polarimetry matching the dispersion of a spectrometer to a laterally graded multilayer (LGML). For GOSoX, the optics are lightweight Si mirrors in a one-bounce parabolic configuration. The instrument covers the wavelength range from 31 A to 75 A (165 - 400 eV). Upon satellite rotation, the intensities of the dispersed spectra, after reflection and polarizing by the LGMLs, give the three Stokes parameters needed to determine a source's linear polarization fraction and orientation. The design can be extended to higher energies as LGMLs are developed further. We describe the potential scientific return and the proposed mission concept following the results of a JPL Team X concept study.
We describe a new implementation of a broad-band soft X-ray polarimeter, substantially based on a previous design. This implementation, the Pioneer Soft X-ray Polarimeter (PiSoX) is a SmallSat, designed for NASA’s call for Astrophysics Pioneers, small missions that could be CubeSats, balloon experiments, or SmallSats. As in REDSoX, the grating arrangement is designed optimally for the purpose of polarimetry with broad-band focussing optics by matching the dispersion of the spectrometer channels to laterally graded multilayers (LGMLs). The system can achieve polarization modulation factors over 90%. For PiSoX, the optics are lightweight Si mirrors in a one-bounce parabolic configuration. High efficiency, blazed gratings from opposite sectors are oriented to disperse to a LGML forming a channel covering the wavelength range from 35 Å to 75 Å (165 - 350 eV). Upon satellite rotation, the intensities of the dispersed spectra, after reflection and polarizing by the LGMLs, give the three Stokes parameters needed to determine a source’s linear polarization fraction and orientation. The design can be extended to higher energies as LGMLs are developed further. We describe examples of the potential scientific return from instruments based on this design.
The Large Lenslet Array Magellan Spectrograph (LLAMAS) is an NSF-funded facility-class Integral Field Unit (IFU) spectrograph under construction for the 6.5-meter Magellan Telescopes. It covers a 37" x 37" solid angle with 2,400 optical fibers efficiently coupled by a double-sided microlens-array, producing R = 2, 000 spectra with 0.7511 spatial resolution. Its broad passband from λ = 350 970nm offers access to line and continuum measurements over a wide range in redshift. Light is multiplexed by the IFU into 8 compact, carbon-fiber bench mounted spectrographs utilizing VPH grisms. We employed several trades on cost-performance ratio while optimizing LLAMAS’ system design including: (a) Splitting the passband between 3 fast all-refractive camera systems with modest entrance pupils, (b) limiting the fibers per unit (i.e. slit length) and building more spectrographs to leverage on production volume, and (c) using a commercial CCD camera built around a common detector (e2v 42-40) and thermoelectric + liquid cooling. To boost blue throughput and achieve high-quality sky subtraction the spectrograph cluster is mounted next to the focal plane on a folded Cassegrain port with gravity-invariant support. This also allows the instrument to deploy quickly, and be fully accessible within 10 minutes on any night, serving as a facility unit for observing astrophysical transients. A sub-sized IFU (169 fibers), mounted in a full-sized front end package with a single spectrograph (2 cameras) was delivered to Magellan in March 2020. We present as-measured laboratory performance from this prototype, though on-sky commissioning was unfortunately cancelled because of the COVID-19 pandemic. This contribution therefore focuses on subsequent design evolution and status of the full facility instrument.
The Large Lenslet Array Magellan Spectrograph (LLAMAS) is an Integral Field Unit (IFU) spectrograph under construction as a facility instrument for the 6.5-meter Magellan Telescopes. For each pointing, LLAMAS delivers 2400 optical spectra (λ =350-970nm) over a 37”x37” celestial solid angle with a resolution of 2000 through a densely packed microlens+fiber array and replicated low-cost spectrographs. One of our main science goals is to study circumgalactic gas through Lyα emission. To achieve the required signal-to-noise ratio for these observations, LLAMAS must minimize stray light reaching the detector: diffuse scattered light must stay below 0.25% of sky flux and ghost images must not exceed 0.1% of the source signal. We present a non-sequential ray tracing analysis of a simplified LLAMAS model using Photon Engineering’s FRED Optical Engineering Software. We focus on stray light resulting from the volume phase holographic grating and from focal ratio degradation of the fibers. The analysis feeds into a discussion of the design and fabrication of baffles to mask the primary sources of stray light. Additionally, we develop a backup system of mounting rings inside of the cameras where pre-made baffles can be quickly added as needed. Finally, we report on the laboratory performance of a 2-camera LLAMAS prototype featuring the aforementioned stray light interventions.
Silicon X-ray detectors often require blocking filters to mitigate noise and out-of-band signal from UV and visible backgrounds. Such filters must be thin to minimize X-ray absorption, so direct deposition of filter material on the detector entrance surface is an attractive approach to fabrication of robust filters. On the other hand, the soft (E < 1 keV) X-ray spectral resolution of the detector is sensitive to the charge collection efficiency in the immediate vicinity of its entrance surface, so it is important that any filter layer is deposited without disturbing the electric field distribution there. We have successfully deposited aluminum blocking filters, ranging in thickness from 70 to 220nm, on back-illuminated CCD X-ray detectors passivated by means of molecular beam epitaxy. Here we report measurements showing that directly deposited filters have little or no effect on soft X-ray spectral resolution. We also find that in applications requiring very large optical density (> OD 6) care must be taken to prevent light from entering the sides and mounting surfaces of the detector. Our methods have been used to deposit filters on the detectors of the REXIS instrument scheduled to fly on OSIRIS-ReX later this year.
OSIRIS-REx is the third spacecraft in the NASA New Frontiers Program and is planned for launch in 2016. OSIRIS-REx will orbit the near-Earth asteroid (101955) Bennu, characterize it, and return a sample of the asteroid’s regolith back to Earth. The Regolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer (REXIS) is an instrument on OSIRIS-REx designed and built by students at MIT and Harvard. The purpose of REXIS is to collect and image sun-induced fluorescent X-rays emitted by Bennu, thereby providing spectroscopic information related to the elemental makeup of the asteroid regolith and the distribution of features over its surface. Telescopic reflectance spectra suggest a CI or CM chondrite analog meteorite class for Bennu, where this primitive nature strongly motivates its study. A number of factors, however, will influence the generation, measurement, and interpretation of the X-ray spectra measured by REXIS. These include: the compositional nature and heterogeneity of Bennu, the time-variable solar state, X-ray detector characteristics, and geometric parameters for the observations. In this paper, we will explore how these variables influence the precision to which REXIS can measure Bennu’s surface composition. By modeling the aforementioned factors, we place bounds on the expected performance of REXIS and its ability to ultimately place Bennu in an analog meteorite class.
The REgolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer (REXIS) instrument is a student collaboration instrument on the OSIRIS-REx asteroid sample return mission scheduled for launch in September 2016. The REXIS science mission is to characterize the elemental abundances of the asteroid Bennu on a global scale and to search for regions of enhanced elemental abundance. The thermal design of the REXIS instrument is challenging due to both the science requirements and the thermal environment in which it will operate. The REXIS instrument consists of two assemblies: the spectrometer and the solar X-ray monitor (SXM). The spectrometer houses a 2x2 array of back illuminated CCDs that are protected from the radiation environment by a one-time deployable cover and a collimator assembly with coded aperture mask. Cooling the CCDs during operation is the driving thermal design challenge on the spectrometer. The CCDs operate in the vicinity of the electronics box, but a 130 °C thermal gradient is required between the two components to cool the CCDs to -60 °C in order to reduce noise and obtain science data. This large thermal gradient is achieved passively through the use of a copper thermal strap, a large radiator facing deep space, and a two-stage thermal isolation layer between the electronics box and the DAM. The SXM is mechanically mounted to the sun-facing side of the spacecraft separately from the spectrometer and characterizes the highly variable solar X-ray spectrum to properly interpret the data from the asteroid. The driving thermal design challenge on the SXM is cooling the silicon drift detector (SDD) to below -30 °C when operating. A two-stage thermoelectric cooler (TEC) is located directly beneath the detector to provide active cooling, and spacecraft MLI blankets cover all of the SXM except the detector aperture to radiatively decouple the SXM from the flight thermal environment. This paper describes the REXIS thermal system requirements, thermal design, and analyses, with a focus on the driving thermal design challenges for the instrument. It is shown through both analysis and early testing that the REXIS instrument can perform successfully through all phases of its mission.
The Regolith x-ray Imaging Spectrometer (REXIS) is a coded-aperture soft x-ray imaging instrument on the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft to be launched in 2016. The spacecraft will fly to and orbit the near-Earth asteroid Bennu, while REXIS maps the elemental distribution on the asteroid using x-ray fluorescence. The detector consists of a 2×2 array of backilluminated 1k×1k frame transfer CCDs with a flight heritage to Suzaku and Chandra. The back surface has a thin p+-doped layer deposited by molecular-beam epitaxy (MBE) for maximum quantum efficiency and energy resolution at low x-ray energies. The CCDs also feature an integrated optical-blocking filter (OBF) to suppress visible and near-infrared light. The OBF is an aluminum film deposited directly on the CCD back surface and is mechanically more robust and less absorptive of x-rays than the conventional free-standing aluminum-coated polymer films. The CCDs have charge transfer inefficiencies of less than 10-6, and dark current of 1e-/pixel/second at the REXIS operating temperature of –60 °C. The resulting spectral resolution is 115 eV at 2 KeV. The extinction ratio of the filter is ~1012 at 625 nm.
OSIRIS-REx is a NASA New Frontiers mission scheduled for launch in 2016 that will travel to the asteroid Bennu and return a pristine sample of the asteroid to Earth. The REgolith X-ray Imaging Spectrometer (REXIS) is a student collaboration instrument on-board the OSIRIS-REx spacecraft. REXIS is a NASA risk Class D instrument, and its design and development is largely student led. The engineering team consists of MIT graduate and undergraduate students and staff at the MIT Space Systems Laboratory. The primary goal of REXIS is the education of science and engineering students through participation in the development of light hardware. In light, REXIS will contribute to the mission by providing an elemental abundance map of the asteroid and by characterizing Bennu among the known meteorite groups. REXIS is sensitive to X-rays between 0.5 and 7 keV, and uses coded aperture imaging to map the distribution of iron with 50 m spatial resolution. This paper describes the science goals, concept of operations, and overall engineering design of the REXIS instrument. Each subsystem of the instrument is addressed with a high-level description of the design. Critical design elements such as the Thermal Isolation Layer (TIL), radiation cover, coded-aperture mask, and Detector Assembly Mount (DAM) are discussed in further detail.
The OSIRIS-REx Mission was selected under the NASA New Frontiers program and is scheduled for launch in
September of 2016 for a rendezvous with, and collection of a sample from the surface of asteroid Bennu in 2019.
101955 Bennu (previously 1999 RQ36) is an Apollo (near-Earth) asteroid originally discovered by the LINEAR project in 1999 which has since been classified as a potentially hazardous near-Earth object. The REgolith X-Ray Imaging Spectrometer (REXIS) was proposed jointly by MIT and Harvard and was subsequently accepted as a student led instrument for the determination of the elemental composition of the asteroid's surface as well as the surface distribution of select elements through solar induced X-ray fluorescence. REXIS consists of a detector plane that contains 4 X-ray CCDs integrated into a wide field coded aperture telescope with a focal length of
20 em for the detection of regions with enhanced abundance in key elements at 50 m scales. Elemental surface distributions of approximately 50-200 m scales can be detected using the instrument as a simple collimator. An overview of the observation strategy of the REXIS instrument and expected performance are presented here.
KEYWORDS: Optical isolators, Interferometers, Performance modeling, Systems modeling, Mirrors, Integrated modeling, Control systems, Optimization (mathematics), Data modeling, Finite element methods
Robust performance tailoring and tuning is a design methodology developed for high-performance, high-risk missions, such as NASA's Terrestrial Planet Finder (TPF). It improves the level of mission confidence obtainable in the absence of a fully integrated system test prior to launch. If uncertainty is high and performance requirements are difficult to meet, existing robust design techniques can not always guarantee performance. Therefore, robust design is extended to include tuning elements that compensate for performance deviations due to parametric modeling uncertainty after the structure is built. In its early stages, the design is tailored for performance, robustness and tuneability. The incorporation of carefully chosen tuning elements guarantees that, once built, the structure will be tuneable to bring performance within requirements. In this paper we apply the dynamic tailoring and tuning methodologies to an integrated model of a structurally-connected TPF interferometer. The problem of interferometer design is posed in a robust design framework and appropriate tuning parameters such as reaction wheel isolator corner frequency and primary mirror support design are identified. Robust performance tailoring with tuning is applied to the problem using structural optimization to obtain a design that manages uncertainty through robustness and tuning authority and achieves a superior design to those generated with dynamic tailoring and robust design alone.
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