Prior research in photoacoustic tomography has consistently demonstrated its ability to image structures near the surface of tissue with a high degree of optical contrast. However, despite significant advancements in the field, there has been little to no development of clinical applications for photoacoustic tomography, principally due to the requirement for backwardmode operation, i.e., it must detect the photoacoustic signal on the same side of the tissue as the incident laser light. This results in the standard ultrasonic transducer occluding the path of the inciting laser beam. Therefore, developing a technique to deliver light into the tissue, while incorporating commonly available ultrasonic detection equipment without occluding the beam propagation or modifying the equipment in any way, would provide a significant benefit to the field, and potentially improve its clinical applicability. Here, we propose a new method to accomplish this aim, using planar optical waveguides that employ the optical tunneling phenomenon to transmit light directly into tissue (pig skin) through physical contact with the sample. A commercially available, 10MHz, unfocused ultrasonic transducer was positioned on the rear face of the waveguide and was used to detect photoacoustic signals generated within the tissue as the signals propagated perpendicularly through the waveguide substrate. Unlike alternative solutions to the occlusion problem, this modality does not necessitate the use of custom manufactured transducers, expensive dichroics, or additional laser systems, and thereby represents a viable approach for the easy implementation of photoacoustic tomography in a clinical setting.
Lasers have demonstrated widespread applicability in clinical dermatology as minimally invasive instruments that achieve photogenerated responses within tissue. However, before reaching its target, the incident light must first transmit through the surface layer of tissue, which is interspersed with chromophores (e.g. melanin) that preferentially absorb the light and may also generate negative tissue responses. These optical absorbers decrease the efficacy of the procedures. In order to ensure that the target receives a clinically relevant dose, most procedures simply increase the incident energy; however, this tends to exacerbate the negative complications of melanin absorption. Here, we present an alternative solution aimed at increasing epidermal energy uence while mitigating excess absorption by unintended targets. Our technique involves the combination of a waveguide-based contact transmission modality with simultaneous high-frequency ultrasonic pulsation, which alters the optical properties of the tissue through the agglomeration of dissolved gasses into micro-bubbles within the tissue. Doing so effectively creates optically transparent pathways for the light to transmit unobstructed through the tissue, resulting in an increase in forward scattering and a decrease in absorption. To demonstrate this, Q-switched nanosecond-pulsed laser light at 532nm was delivered into pig skin samples using custom glass waveguides clad in titanium and silver. Light transmission through the tissue was measured with a photodiode and integrating sphere for tissue with and without continuous ultrasonic pulsation at 510 kHz. The combination of these techniques has the potential to improve the efficiency of laser procedures while mitigating negative tissue effects caused by undesirable absorption.
As contemporary laser dermatology procedures, like tattoo removal and skin resurfacing, become more popular, the complications of their operation are also becoming more prevalent. Frequent incidences of over-exposure, ocular injury, and excessive thermal damage represent mounting concerns for those seeking such procedures; moreover, each of these problems is a direct consequence of the standard, free-space method of laser transmission predominantly used in clinical settings. Therefore, an alternative method of light transmission is needed to minimize these problems. Here, we demonstrate and characterize an alternative method that uses planar waveguides to deliver light into sample tissue via direct contact. To do this, slab substrates made from glass were clad in layers of titanium and silver, constraining the light within the waveguide along the waveguide’s length. By creating active areas on the waveguide surface, the propagating light could then optically tunnel into the tissue sample, when the waveguide was brought into contact with the tissue. SEM and EDS were used to characterize the metal film thickness and deposition rates onto the glass substrates. Laser light from a Q-switched Nd:YAG source operating at 532nm was coupled into the waveguide and transmitted into samples of pig skin. The amount of light transmitted was measured using photoacoustics techniques, in conjunction with a photodiode and integrating sphere. Transmitting light into tissue in this manner effectively resolves or circumvents the complications caused by free-space propagation methods as it reduces the operating distance to 0, which prevents hazardous back-reflections and allows for the ready incorporation of contact cooling technologies.
Due to the often extreme energies employed, contemporary methods of laser delivery utilized in clinical dermatology allow
for a dangerous amount of high-intensity laser light to reflect off a multitude of surfaces, including the patient’s own skin.
Such techniques consistently represent a clear and present threat to both patients and practitioners alike. The intention of
this work was therefore to develop a technique that mitigates this problem by coupling the light directly into the tissue
via physical contact with an optical waveguide. In this manner, planar waveguides cladded in silver with thin-film active
areas were used to illuminate agar tissue phantoms with nanosecond-pulsed laser light at 532nm. The light then either
refracted or optically tunneled through the active area, photoacoustically generating ultrasonic waves within the phantom,
whose peak-to-peak intensity directly correlated to the internal reflection angle of the beam. Consequently, angular spectra
for energy delivery were recorded for sub-wavelength silver and titanium films of variable thickness. Optimal energy
delivery was achieved for internal reflection angles ranging from 43 to 50 degrees, depending on the active area and
thin film geometries, with titanium films consistently delivering more energy across the entire angular spectrum due to
their relatively high refractive index. The technique demonstrated herein therefore not only represents a viable method of
energy delivery for biological tissue while minimizing the possibility for stray light, but also demonstrates the possibility
for utilizing thin films of high refractive index metals to redirect light out of an optical waveguide.
Evanescent field sensing methods are currently used to detect many different types of disease markers and biologically important chemicals such as the HER2 breast cancer receptor. Hinoue et al. used Total Internal Reflection Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (TIRPAS) as a method of using the evanescent field to detect an optically opaque dye at a sample interface. Although their methods were successful at detecting dyes, the results at that time did not show a very practical spectroscopic technique, which was due to the less than typical sensitivity of TIRPAS as a spectroscopy modality given the low power ( ∼ 1 to 2 W) lasers being used. Contrarily, we have used an Nd:YAG laser with a five nanosecond pulse that gives peak power of 1 MW coupled with the TIRPAS system to increase the sensitivity of this technique for biological material sensing. All efforts were focused on the eventual detection of the optically absorbing material, hemozoin, which is created as a byproduct of a malarial infection in blood. We used an optically analogous material, β-hematin, to determine the potential for detection in the TIRPAS system. In addition, four properties which control the sensitivity were investigated to increase understanding about the sensor's function as a biosensing method.
Total Internal Reflection Photoacoustic Spectroscopy (TIRPAS) is a method that exploits the evanescent field of a nanosecond duration laser pulse reflecting off a glass/water interface to generate photoacoustic responses. These photoacoustic events are generated in light absorbing analytes suspended in the fluid medium in contact with the glass that are within the penetration depth of the evanescent wave. This method has been employed in previous studies by Hinoue et al. Hinoue et al. used an optically chopped HeNe laser at 632.8 nm to detect Brilliant Blue FCF dye at different angles of incidence. In recent years, the advent of high power nanosecond pulsed tunable lasers has allowed for the re-visitation of the TIRPAS idea under stress confinement and orders of magnitude larger peak energy conditions. Compared to conventional detection methods, this approach has the potential to detect much smaller quantities of disease indicators, such as circulating tumor cells and hemazoin crystals in malaria, than other optical methods. The detection limit of the TIRPAS system was quantified using chlorazol black solution with an absorption coefficient of 55 cm-1 at 532 nm. Interaction with the evanescent field was verified by varying the angle of incidence of the probe laser beam that generated the photoacoustic waves, thereby changing the penetration depth of the evanescent field as well as the photoacoustic spectroscopy effect from angled excitation.
We demonstrate the rapid detection of explosive vapors based on a fiber-based optical Fabry-Pérot (FP) gas sensor. The
sensing probe of the FP sensor is composed of a thin metal layer and a vapor-sensitive polymer layer that are deposited
sequentially on a cleaved fiber endface to form an FP cavity. The interference spectrum generated from the reflected
light at the metal-polymer and polymer-air interfaces changes upon the absorption of gas analyte. By monitoring the
interference shift, we are able to obtain quantitative and knetic information of the interaction between the analyte and the
polymer layer. We further assemble the FP sensor with a short fused silica capillary into a sensor module, and employ it
in a gas chromotgraphy (GC) system for selevtive rapid on-column detection. In this report, we specifically target 2, 4-
dinitrotoluene (DNT) and 2, 4, 6-trinitrotoluene (TNT) for their obvious defense applications. This work could lead to a
portable sensor capable of detecting low concentrations of DNT, TNT, and other explosive chemicals.
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