In the paper methods and results of testing optical surface form with the use of the point diffraction interferometer (PDI) D7 are presented. This interferometer can produce much higher accuracy of testing optics of various kinds than traditional interferometers, and validation of its industrial applicability is the scope of the paper. An overview and analysis of techniques making using D7 in manufacturing process easier and faster are given, the accuracy which can be achieved with common requirements of optical industry is evaluated at level of λ/150 – λ/250 PV and λ/600 – λ/1000 RMS. Measurements by subapertures for consequent stitching of subaperture wavefronts with desired overlay are considered. Conclusions followed by further perspectives of the described instrument are given.
Testing of an X-ray mirror by a point diffraction interferometer (PDI) D7 with two beams is described. Thanks to the two independent test and reference beams, mirrors metrology using the D7 coupled with accessory optics becomes straightforward and reliable. Therefore procedure of systematic error removal and sub-aperture measurements with stitching are simplified. In this paper, we describe the main technique to achieve high accuracy of stitching sub-aperture wavefronts, followed by further perspectives of the described instrument.
Advanced figuring technology has enabled manufacturing of high accuracy optics for precision applications. The measurement technologies to verify them are largely based on Fizeau interferometry, which is limited in terms of accuracy because of external accessories such as reference flat. Lack of appropriate verification method is adversely affecting the manufacturing and optimization of precision optics. In this paper, we explore a fundamentally different interferometry arrangement, D7 produced by Difrotec. A phase shifting point diffraction interferometer (PSPDI) and present measurement results for concave spheres with an accuracy of λ/1000 PV, and compared this full-shot result with wavefront maps obtained by subaperture stitching (SAS) to verify stitching accuracy. We also describe measurement of asphere cavity using SAS, with higher accuracy, λ/500 RMS, discuss strategies to measure concave/convex spheres and aspheres with R-number ≥ 0.5 with nanometer accuracy, and conclude with perspectives on the future applications of PSPDI D7.
Almost hidden residual defects of a test surface can be revealed using high precision instrument such as a point
diffraction interferometer (PDI). In general, PDI is engaged to display the figure of a surface or wavefront with subnanometer
accuracy paying attention to low-frequency configurations. Such technique is suited to test EUV or X-ray
optics. The tool described in the paper is able to map absolute profile deviations of several angstroms and therefore it
provides a new vision of a surface under test of various quality, e.g. detects specific characteristics which immediately
disclose either lapping or diamond turning has been used to form the substrate. Such inspection may help optimize the
processes in early stage of shape forming before final configuring.
The paper presents modifications of full-field optical methods commonly used to test the surface quality of optical components used for forming a high power laser beam and tests of a final wavefront. The modifications in reference to surface measurements rely on implementation of the novel fringe pattern processing methods including the quality improvement of initial interferogram and analysis of a reconstructed phase based on Hilbert-Huang transform aided by the principal component analysis. Also the Point Diffraction Interferometer as the efficient tool for high quality measurements of elements with high NA is introduced. In reference to a wavefront quality measurements two solutions are discussed: the use of a lateral shear interferometer and the system employing Transport of Intensity Equation method. The pros and cons for both methods are discussed.
Point diffraction interferometer (PDI) has become the high degree of accuracy device. In the optical wavefront testing the measurement accuracy is much higher than 1.0 nm RMS. In the paper there is presented a new version of PDI with two independently controlled beams using a pinhole plate with two pinholes as a beam coupler instead of a single-mode fiber or single-pinhole plate. Theoretical analysis of the pinhole diffraction wavefront and double pinholes diffraction interference is given. The PDI is used to investigate an interferometer reference lens and compare measurement results. The device can test high NA, the interference is obtained in circularly polarized light, and fringe contrast is adjustable to measure surfaces with different reflectance. The measurement repeatability now has been sub-nm RMS (measured NA = 0.33). The experiment result provides guarantee for the measurement in the high degree of accuracy. In the double pinholes PDI, generating two ideal spherical waves through two pinholes, one wave is as the reference wavefront for interference test, another ideal wavefront is reflected to the pinhole plate by the test mirror, and the tested wavefront and reference wavefront bring interference. Advantages of such arrangement of the PDI are: high maximum numerical aperture (NA = 0.55), distinct fringe patterns of high contrast, high accuracy of surface figure testing and wave-front repeatability RMS error 0.3 nm.
Interferometric inspection of optical surfaces and wavefronts requires permanently increasing accuracy. Therefore
interferometric equipment is being improved and improved continuously. Point-diffraction interferometers (PDI) with an
“inbuilt” reference wavefront originating from light diffraction by a pinhole aperture are potentially capable to produce
the highest possible accuracy of a surface figure or wavefront characterization. The most mentioned configurations and
their versions like Linnik-Smart and Sommargren schemes produce low-contrast spare-striped fringe patterns instead of
full-contrast distinct interferograms, like e.g. produced by Fizeau interferometers, with clear phase shifting (PS) data
flow.
The concept of a PDI presented in this paper is to provide two perpendicularly outgoing wavefronts – test and reference
ones – with mutual intensity regulation and arbitrary and stable phase shifts of one wavefront relative to the other. Such
concept is also targeted to provide user-friendly measuring conditions similarly to interferometers which are in common
use.
Advantages of such arrangement of the PDI are: high numerical aperture (NA = 0.55), clear fringe patterns of high
contrast, high accuracy of surface figure testing with wave-front RMS error 0.125 nm and wave-front RMS repeatability
0.05 nm. Performance of the PDI is illustrated by tables of repeatability and test surface profile plots for different
azimuthal angles.
For interferometric testing of polished surfaces and wavefronts with the best physically accessible accuracy it is good to
use a perfect wavefront reference originating from light diffraction by a pinhole aperture in a point-diffraction
interferometer (PDI). It is evident that phase shifting (PS) interferometric measurements with the use of the PDI should
be fulfilled adequately to perfectness of its wavefront reference unless high accuracy expectations will not be met.
High accuracy of the reference beam phase shifting of the two-beam PDI is produced by a two staged alignment
procedure being performed on-line when PS fringe patterns (frames) are being saved. This procedure is a time frequency
filtering of intensity function of each pixel performed in order to extract regular sinusoids from a set of erroneous and
noisy signals. The results of wavefront retrieval from the saved set of PS frames using any N bucket algorithm by the
Durango software in both cases – not aligned and aligned – are compared.
This research helps keep the PDI accuracy corresponding to perfectness of the wavefront diffraction reference. Also this
research may help in PS measurements performed by other types of interferometers where phase shifts are realized by
test part movement.
A technique traditionally used for optical proximity correction (OPC) is extended to include topography
proximity effects (TPE). Central to this is a thin-mask imaging model capable of addressing very large areas.
This compact model being compatible with traditional fast imaging models used in OPC can then be used in
standard correction approaches, compensating for both the optical proximity effects and wafer topography
proximity effects. Model origin and model form are considered along with calibration process. Capturing
ability and performance of the model are numerically evaluated on a number of test patterns. The performance
of the model is close to that of models used in the planar case.
Small feature sizes down to the current 45 nm node and precision requirements of patterning in 193 nm
lithography as well as layers where the wafer stack does not allow any BARC require - not only correction of
optical proximity (OPC) effects originating from mask topography and imaging system, but also correction of
wafer topography proximity (WTPC) effects as well. In spite of wafer planarization process steps, wafer
topography (proximity) effects induced by different optical properties of the patterned materials start playing
a significant role, and correction techniques need to be applied in order to minimize the impact.
In this paper, we study a methodology to create fast models intended for effective use in OPC and WTPC
procedures. In order to be short we use the terms "OPCWTPC modeling" and "OPCWTPC models" through
the paper although it would be more correctly to take the terms "mask synthesis modeling" and "mask
synthesis models".
A comprehensive data set is required to build a reliable OPC model. We present a "virtual fab" concept using
extensive test pattern sets with both 1D and 2D structures to capture optical proximity effects as well as wafer
topography effects.
A rigorous lithography simulator taking into account exposure tool source maps, topographic mask effects as
well as wafer topography is used to generate virtual measurement data, which are used for model calibration
as well as for model validation.
For model building, we use a two step approach: in a first step, an OPC model is built using test patterns on a
planar, homogenous substrate; in a second step a WTPC model is calibrated, using results from simulated test
patterns on shallow trench isolation (STI) layer. This approach allows building models from experimental
data, including hybrid approaches where only experimental data from planar substrates is available and a
corresponding OPC model for the planar case can be retrofitted with capabilities for correcting wafer
topography effects.
We analyze the relevant effects and requirements for model building and validation as well as the
performance of fast WTPC models.
The illumination system presented in the paper consists of an elliptical mirror collecting light in the solid angle over 103 and two plane mirrors (one of them is a grazing incidence mirror). The projection lens consists of two 4th-order aspherical mirrors with the diminished obscuration 0.36. The simultaneous exposure wafer area is 0.82 x 0.82 mm2 and NA = 0.36. The obscuration of the projection lens and obscured aperture of the illumination system influence the contrast of nanometer features of image. Mathematical simulation of imaging by the partially coherent theory is performed for target bars with L&S 15, 30, and 45 nanometers. The results of computer simulation give the reliable values of contrast 0.50, 0.58 and 0.6 correspondingly.
Modern approach to the optical investigation of optical systems of the highest precision is considered. Lack of classical interferometers is the necessity of presence for their schematics the reference optical element, so its accuracy is limited always. However for the testing of optical systems and elements of the best class the devices ensuring accuracy at a level 1/100 - 1/200 λ are necessary. It is on the order more exact than the traditional. As the alternative, the concept of the interferometer with diffracted reference wavefront [point diffraction (PDI) --interferometer] is offered. In this research the schematic of PDI-interferometer with basic front, common for working and observant branches, is developed. The errors are reduced. The flexibility and universality of an interferometer are achieved. The accuracy, simplicity and profitability are increased. The adjusting is simplified.
KEYWORDS: Near field scanning optical microscopy, Near field optics, Spatial frequencies, Near field, Diffraction, Magnetism, Polarization, Optical microscopes, Computer simulations, Super resolution
An approach to the optical investigation of probes for scanning near-field optical microscopes (SNOM tips) and recognition of their near-field parameters by far-field measurements is considered. The comparison of approximate calculations of vector light field diffracted by a subwavelength aperture with more rigorous calculations of the light field passing through a tapered end of a SNOM tip is presented. A numerical iterative procedure of the SNOM tip aperture reconstruction by the analytical continuation of the emerging light Fourier spectrum is presented. The approach is based on the use of plane waves covering a wide range of spatial frequencies. The results of experimental measurements and far-field data treatment with the definition of a subwavelength aperture are discussed.
Problem of testing fine optics in industrial conditions with the highest accuracy is considered. Requirements to the quality of optical surfaces and wavefront errors referred to various kinds of optical systems are discussed. The disadvantages of the use of test parts with etalon surfaces in interferometric measurements are considered and the dead circle of the use of the unknown-shaped reference surfaces is revealed. The solution of this problem is proposed through application of the point diffraction interferometer (PDI). The advanced schematic of such an interferometer is
presented; unlimited accuracy and industrial testing possibilities of the upgraded Linnik interferometer are discussed.
New branch in optoelectronics and photonics -- integrated optical circuits as a part of hybrid optical devices and the problems of coupling efficiency in optical interconnections (OI) -- is discussed. General approach to optical circuits analysis and adjustment based on classical optics is presented. The means to improve OI light efficiency in two regions -- far-field (Fraunhofer diffraction zone) free space and near-field (Fresnel diffraction zone) vicinity of micro-optical devices are proposed. New optical elements for OI -- fiber-end mounted microlenses, their design, computer simulation and fabrication technique are considered.
Basic principles of laser assisted process of fiber etching for scanning near-field optical (SNO) probes formation and control technique are presented. The thermal and temporal regimes are considered in order to provide stable reproducibility and high quality of a tapered end of the optical fiber. Problems of adequate definition of the scanning imaging properties of a SNO probe are discussed. Thus an optical method of far-field registration and processing together with a new autoelectric emission method are considered for solution of the task of a subwavelength SNO probe aperture measurement and estimation of its apparatus function.
KEYWORDS: Near field optics, Laser applications, Pyrometry, Near field, Mirrors, Temperature metrology, Projection systems, Fiber lasers, Spherical lenses, Quartz
Basic principles of laser assisted process of fiber etching for scanning near-field optical (SNO) probes formation and control technique are presented. The thermal and temporal regimes are considered in order to provide stable reproducibility and high quality of a tapered end of the optical fiber. Problems of adequate definition of the scanning imaging properties of a SNO probe are discussed. Thus an optical method of far-field registration and processing together with a new autoelectronic emission method are considered for solution of the task of a subwavelength SNO probe aperture measurement and estimation of its apparatus function.
The automation of the designer's documentation making process gives rise to necessity in search of new possibilities for the even greater facilitation of the instruments designing process. Now in the field of optical instruments designing is felt a deficiency in the area of the software for automation of the designer's documentation formation. The development of ZOOM-objectives optics requires complex and laborious work of optics-designer and creation of new forms of realization of the projects for improvement of creative work too. The given report is devoted to development of the mathematical foundation and software for a construction of the mount of the optical system automized design.
KEYWORDS: Near field scanning optical microscopy, Diffraction, Spatial frequencies, Near field optics, Near field, Magnetism, Polarization, Computer simulations, Optical microscopes, Fourier transforms
An approach to the optical investigation of probes for scanning near-field optical microscopes (SNOM tips) and recognition of their near-field parameters by far-field measurements is considered. The comparison of approximate calculations of vector light field diffracted by a subwavelength aperture with more rigorous calculations of the light field passing through tapered end of a SNOM tip is presented. A numerical iterative procedure of the SNOM tip aperture reconstruction by the analytical continuation of the emerging light Fourier spectrum is presented. The approach is based on the use of plane waves covering a wide range of spatial frequencies. The results of experimental measurements and far-field data treatment with the definition of a subwavelength aperture are discussed.
KEYWORDS: Laser applications, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Fiber lasers, Spherical lenses, Geometrical optics, Lenses, Near field optics, Fiber optics, Gas lasers, Microlens
A set of new laser-light delivery microtools (LDM) based on laser technology is investigated and discussed. Wide application of LDM in different fields of science, medicine, biology, industry and information processing is considered. Fiber optical networks in medical diagnostics and technical, civil engineering and other technological areas are discussed. The general approach based on electromagnetic field equations-transformation for all range of dimensions (mini-, micro and nanodomain) is given. Laser-assisted technology for drawing-out and for microstructuring optical tools is investigated, high-speed movie has been applied to study the process and compared with theoretical description. Finally a number of fibers and micropipettes-based medical tools and SNOM-tips has been fabricated and tested. Applications of some tools for medical operations (thermocoagulation), protein rasters preparing, SNOM-microscopy investigation have been demonstrated.
Micropipettes mathematical modeling and fabrication are presented. New approaches to treatment of modeling light passing through narrow glass tubes and calculation of intensity distribution in the vicinity of a tube are shown. This method is based on a layer-to-layer Fourier transform procedure which is an alternative to waveguide technique. Laser technique to produce micropipettes and to control the shape of them are described and experimental results are considered. Perspectives of medical and optical applications are discussed.
KEYWORDS: Near field scanning optical microscopy, Near field optics, Glasses, Near field, Diffraction, Inverse optics, Wave propagation, Mirrors, Charge-coupled devices, Microscopes
Scanning near field optical microscopes provide access to highly resolved optical and topographical surface properties. The resolutions that can be achieved are better than 100 nm. However, the quality of the optical fiber tip is of decisive importance. Because the production process of pulled and coated glass fiber tips is still highly empirical and error-prone, a technique would be useful to determine the tips' quality before they are shipped to the user or mounted in the microscope.
KEYWORDS: Near field scanning optical microscopy, Near field optics, Near field, Diffraction, Geometrical optics, Light scattering, Radio propagation, Mathematical modeling, Microscopes, Microscopy
Nowadays near-field optics is one of the most attractive area for research, both for theoretical and experimental. Properly in the problem of near-field optics the most important things now are - the creation of more suitable and simpler approach to the description of near-field than MMP method and the creation of new generation of scanning near- field optical instruments (SNOI) such as microscopes, spectroscopes, light generators for lithography, etc. The key of this SNOI generation is a variety of SNOM tips with the higher resolution and transparency and else one what may be even more important, the creation of method for SNOM tips certification. Both of these problems are being investigated in Russia. Short review of other directions for near-field investigation in Russia is also given, including important applications for quantum dots studying and investigation of optical strength of SNOM tips.
THeoretical investigation of the distribution of light intensity close to the lens focus is discussed, the distribution itself being treated as a sum of unit vector plane waves. Each wave is characterized by a matrix coefficient, a wave vector, a vector of polarization, a matrix of polarization orientation and a Maxwell-Jones' vector. This approach offers to take easily into account polarization effects and aberrations of an optical system in image modeling. Calculations are based on fast Fourier transform.
Principles and mathematics for computer aided high precision optical system alignment and tolerancing are discussed as applied to photolithography projection lenses. All aberrations of an optical system including distortion are described by using global polychromatic Zernike polynomial expansion of the wave front aberration, so to optimize the lens quality one has to minimize each coefficient of the expansion. The procedure of aberrations measurement which is based on Hartmann test is discussed and the processing technique which easily offers to define the overfield coma, spherical aberration, distortion and astigmatism is proposed. Least squares method is used to calculate from measured data the aberration coefficients for a real system. After optimum selection of adjustable parameters axial symmetry and decentered aberrations are being compensated separately of each other.
A new approach to simulation of light propagation through structures with nanometer-sized features is presented. The approach is based on the use of plane waves covering a wide range of spatial frequencies. The advantages of great numerical efficiency and some conception problems connected with the application of fast Fourier transform to a non- uniform medium are considered. Vector field representation and Maxwell's boundary conditions treatment are discussed. The simulation model is used to represent the light distribution passing through a tapered part of a scanning near-field optical probe.
KEYWORDS: Near field optics, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Fiber lasers, Laser processing, Optics manufacturing, Quartz, Optical fibers, Near field, Manufacturing, Mirrors
The new optical scheme is built up and is used on the set-up for laser-assisted drawing-out processing (LADOP) and the technique of LADOP for optical fibers are investigated. The probes for SNOM with sizes of aperture about 100 nm were obtained and tested by SNOM. The kinetic model of LADOP is represented.
KEYWORDS: Near field optics, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Optical fibers, Laser applications, Fiber lasers, Nanoprobes, Near field, Optical fabrication, Antennas, Transparency
Optics with resolution within the wavelength - scanning near-field optical microscopy - is highly important science field nowadays. Main parameters of the SNOM - resolution, contrast, energetic efficiency are defined by optical probes characteristics: aperture size or curvature radius of the sharp, geometry, material, etc. Fabrication and testing of optical probes in nanometric scale of size are described in the paper. For fabrication of near-field probes the laser many-steps drawing and chemical etching of single- and multimode optical fibers is realized. Investigation of far- field light distribution and theoretical reconstruction of near field carried out the testing of probes.
KEYWORDS: Near field scanning optical microscopy, Charge-coupled devices, Glasses, Objectives, Near field, Mirrors, Near field optics, Microscopes, Mathematical modeling, Diffraction
Scanning near field optical microscopes provide access to a variety of interesting material properties with a resolution in the nanometric size of scale. However, the quality of the optical fiber tip is of decisive importance. Because the production process of pulled and coated glass fiber tips is still highly empirical and full of defects, a technique would be useful to determine the tips' quality before they are shipped to the user or mounted in the microscope. This contribution shows an easy and fast full field method for the characterization of common 633 nm glass fiber SNOM tips. Size and shape as well as disturbances at the aperture can be recognized by means of evaluating the far field distribution of the emitted intensity and phase which are recorded by a CCD target. A numerical model is introduced which solves the reverse task that allows to draw conclusions from the measured intensity and phase distributions to the shape of the tip itself. Experimental investigation in a simple and robust setup and comparisons with combined near/far-field calculations show the working principle of this measurement technique for the analysis of SNOM tips.
KEYWORDS: Visible radiation, Super resolution, Fourier transforms, Light sources, Mathematical modeling, Optical testing, Spatial frequencies, Zernike polynomials, Near field optics, Near field
The application of optical superresolution technique to measuring small particles, said to be secondary light sources with various scales of sizes - from micrometers to nanometers, is discussed. The concept of a separate nanosized object and theoretical approach to recognition of its size through the mathematical continuation of the visible angular spectrum of vector plane waves suggested.
KEYWORDS: Near field scanning optical microscopy, Near field optics, Nanoprobes, Optical microscopy, Near field, Fiber lasers, Antennas, Optical fibers, Aluminum, Laser applications
Various kinds of nanoprobes for scanning near-field optical microscopy with the requirements and peculiarities of fabrication are discussed. A set up for fabrication of fiber made tips is presented and new ideas of optical superresolution technique for SNOM subwavelength apertures recognition is suggested.
KEYWORDS: Light sources, Near field scanning optical microscopy, Visible radiation, Near field, Near field optics, Fourier transforms, Super resolution, Spatial frequencies, Light wave propagation, Polarization
A new approach to the investigation of probes for scanning near-field optical microscopes and recognition of parameters of arbitrary secondary light sources in nanometric scale is suggested. A new numerical technique of analytical continuation of the Fourier spectrum with the object restoration procedure based on Zernike polynomials iterative extrapolation is presented.
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