The next generation of extremely large telescopes requires the use of segmented mirrors. This technology needs specific wave front sensors to measure the alignment and phasing state. This paper compares two specific technologies for the measurement of wavefront steps between segments: a simple pin hole and a phase contrast sensor. The efficiency of each sensor will be quantified by calculating the Fisher information, first, under ideal conditions, then including the effects of sampling and atmospheric turbulence.
We study a novel focal plane wavefront sensing and active optics control scheme at the VST on Cerro Paranal, an f/5.5 survey telescope with a 1x1 degree field of view and a 2.6m primary mirror. This scheme analyzes the elongation pattern of stellar PSFs across the full science image (256 Mpixels) and compares their second moments with an analytical model based on 5th-order geometrical optics. We consider 11 scalar degrees of freedom in mirror misalignments and deformations (M2 piston, tip/tilt and lateral displacement, detector tip/tilt, plus M1 figure astigmatism and trefoil). Using a numerical optimization method, we extract up to 4000 stars and complete the fitting process in under one minute. We demonstrate successful closed-loop active optics control based on maximum likelihood filtering.
We study a novel active optics control scheme at the VST on Cerro Paranal, an f/5:5 survey telescope with a 1x1 degree field of view and a 2.6m primary mirror. This scheme analyzes the elongation pattern of the star PSFs across the full science image (267 Mpixels) and compares their second moments with an analytical model based on 5th-order geometrical optics, comprising 9 degrees of freedom in mirror misalignments and deformations. Using a numerical optimization method, we can complete the star extraction and fitting process in under one minute, fast enough for effective closed-loop active optics control in survey observing cadences.
A one year database has been gathered from the VLT active optics Shack-Hartmann (S-H) wavefront sensor images taken at each operating focus about every 30 seconds. The VLT telescope control software includes a dedicated code to extract the median full width at half maximum of the unvignetted S-H spots which is used for this study. This code applies a 1-D fit, assuming circular Hartmann spots, which allows to work only on foci equipped with atmospheric dispersion correction, or when the telescopes are observing close to zenith. The S-H image size measured inside the 30m enclosures is compared the outside seeing measured at 6m above ground by the VLT Astronomical Site Monitor (DIMM). A method for correcting DIMM measurements from surface layer turbulence contamination is proposed.
The paper describes the envisaged positioning and drive system for telescopes of the 2m class, gives some basic analysis
for power consumption and positioning performance and proposes next steps for verification of the concept. A possible
application could be in optical stellar interferometry where an additional delay could be spared if the positioning performance
is better than 10nm. Fast re-positioning of the telescopes should allow for multiple baselines during one observing
night giving the opportunity to obtain high spatial stellar images with high time resolution.
The active optics system of the VLT Survey Telescope (VST) adopts a positioning system for the secondary mirror, a
system to support and modify the shape of the 2.6-m primary mirror, and a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor. This
paper describes the concepts of the VST active optics and the commissioning of the whole system on the ESO's Paranal
Observatory.
In a wide-field telescope like the VST, the requirements for alignment are tighter than for traditional instruments. The
same amount of misalignment can be negligible in traditional telescopes with fields of some arc minutes, but
unacceptable when the field is one order of magnitude larger. We describe the alignment procedure implemented during
the telescope commissioning on the Paranal ESO's observatory, as well as the final results.
The Zernike phase contrast sensor has been studied in the framework of the Active Phasing Experiment in the laboratory and on sky at the Very Large Telescope. Atmospheric turbulence strongly affects the shape of the signal of the Zernike phase contrast sensor. The first part of these proceedings is dedicated to a study of the influence of atmospheric turbulence on the signal of the Zernike phase contrast sensor. The second part is dedicated to the phasing of segmented deformable mirrors. A new technology of segmented deformable mirrors for adaptive optics made from silicon wafers with bimorph piezoelectric actuation has been proven to work. A demonstrator with three hexagonal segments of 90 mm corner to corner has been built. The morphing capability of the segmented mirror has been studied and validated by simulations and on a test bench. In this paper, we demonstrate with simulations the phasing of the segmented bimorph mirror with the Zernike phase contrast method. Aspects such as phasing in the presence of segment aberrations have been investigated.
The shape correction of the mirrors is a crucial operation to obtain diffraction limited images in actively
controlled telescopes. If the mirror is not monolithic, the segmentation errors introduced by piston, tip and tilt of the
segments are superimposed on the continuous aberrations. In the case of a sensor based on the measurement of the wave
front slopes, like the Shack-Hartmann wave front sensor, an algorithm which allows separating the different
contributions is necessary for a proper correction. In the framework of the Active Phasing Experiment (APE) carried out
at ESO, we have developed a simple algorithm which can be applied to compute the aberrations and the tip-tilt
coefficients using the information obtained with a Shack-Hartmann sensor. It is based on the construction of an
orthogonal base in the space of the wave front slope functions. The description of the algorithm and its performance in
the cases of low-order aberrations superimposed on tip-tilt misalignment of the segments are reported. A particular
application of this technique in the case of the European Extremely Large Telescope (E-ELT) is discussed and the
expected upper limits for the residual errors after correction are estimated.
The Shack-Hartmann Phasing Sensor (SHAPS) has been integrated in the Active Phasing Experiment (APE) at ESO.
It is currently under test in the laboratory. The tests on sky are foreseen for the end of 2008, when APE will be mounted
at the Nasmyth focus of one of the VLT unit telescopes. SHAPS is based on the Shack-Hartmann principle: the lenslet
array is located in a plane which is optically conjugated to the Active Segmented Mirror (ASM) of APE and is composed
of two types of microlenses, circular and cylindrical, which give information about the wavefront slope and the piston
steps, respectively. This proceeding contains a description of SHAPS and of the algorithms implemented for the
wavefront reconstruction and for the phasing. The preliminary results obtained during the laboratory tests are discussed
and compared with the theoretical predictions. The performances of SHAPS at the VLT and at the European Extremely
Large Telescope (E-ELT) are estimated.
In the framework of the Active Phasing Experiment (APE), four different phasing techniques are tested. The
ZErnike Unit for Segment phasing sensor (ZEUS) is integrated on the APE bench. APE has been tested in
the laboratory before it will be installed on one of the Nasmyth platform of a Very Large Telescope (VLT)
Unit Telescope to perform on sky tests. The ZEUS phasing sensor concept has its origins in the Mach-Zehnder
interferometer equipped with a spatial filter in its focal plane. In this paper, the ZEUS phasing sensor is
described together with its theoretical background and deployment within the APE experiment. The algorithms
and its elements used to reconstruct the wavefront are described. Finally, the preliminary results obtained in
the laboratory are presented.
The purpose of the Active Phasing Experiment, designed under the lead of ESO, is to study new phasing technologies
and to validate wavefront control concepts for Extremely Large Telescopes. The Active Phasing Experiment is currently
tested in the laboratory at the ESO headquarters and will be tested on sky at a Nasmyth focus of a VLT unit telescope at
the end of 2008. The test bench contains four different phasing sensors which are tested in parallel to compare them
under the same conditions. They have been developed by Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Florenze, Instituto
Astrofisica Canarias in Tenerife, Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Marseille and ESO. It includes also an Active
Segmented Mirror which simulates the segmentation of a primary mirror. A non-contact optical metrology has been
developed by Fogale Nanotech to control it. The VLT focus and the VLT atmospheric conditions are simulated in the
laboratory with a turbulence generator producing a seeing between 0.45 and 0.85 arcsec. Once installed on a VLT unit
telescope, the control system of the Active Phasing Experiment will be able to control the phasing of the ASM, but also
the guiding and the active optics of the VLT. This proceeding gives a brief summary of the opto-mechanical aspects of
the Active Phasing experiment, describes its control system and gives an analysis of the preliminary results obtained in
the laboratory.
KEYWORDS: Systems modeling, Control systems, Telescopes, Systems engineering, Safety, Performance modeling, Sensors, Reverse modeling, Large telescopes, Mirrors
Large telescopes pose a continuous challenge to systems engineering due to their complexity in terms of requirements,
operational modes, long duty lifetime, interfaces and number of components. A multitude of decisions must be taken
throughout the life cycle of a new system, and a prime means of coping with complexity and uncertainty is using models
as one decision aid. The potential of descriptive models based on the OMG Systems Modeling Language (OMG
SysMLTM) is examined in different areas: building a comprehensive model serves as the basis for subsequent activities of
soliciting and review for requirements, analysis and design alike. Furthermore a model is an effective communication
instrument against misinterpretation pitfalls which are typical of cross disciplinary activities when using natural language
only or free-format diagrams. Modeling the essential characteristics of the system, like interfaces, system structure and
its behavior, are important system level issues which are addressed. Also shown is how to use a model as an analysis tool
to describe the relationships among disturbances, opto-mechanical effects and control decisions and to refine the control
use cases. Considerations on the scalability of the model structure and organization, its impact on the development
process, the relation to document-centric structures, style and usage guidelines and the required tool chain are presented.
Integrated models including optics, structures, control systems, and disturbances are important design tools
for Extremely Large Telescopes (ELTs). An integrated model has been formulated for the European ELT
and it includes telescope structure, main servos, primary mirror segment control system, wind, optics, wavefront
sensors, deformable mirror, and an AO reconstructor and controller. There are three model phases: Initialization,
execution of a solver to determine time responses, and post-processing. In near future, the model will be applied
for performance studies and design trade-offs for the European ELT.
The primary mirror of future Extremely Large Telescopes will be composed of hundreds of individual segments.
Misalignments in piston and tip-tilt of such segments must be reduced to a small fraction of the observing
wavelength in order not to affect the image quality of these telescopes. In the framework of the Active Phasing
Experiment carried out at ESO, new phasing techniques based on the concept of pupil plane detection will
be tested. The misalignments of the segments produce amplitude variations at locations on a CCD detector
corresponding to the locations of the segment edges. The position of the segment edges on a CCD image must
first be determined with pixel accuracy in order to localize the signals which can be analyzed in a second phase
with a robust signal analysis algorithm. A method to retrieve the locations of the edges and a phasing algorithm
to measure the misalignments between the segments with an accuracy of a few nanometers have been developed.
This entire phasing procedure will be presented. The performance of the pattern recognition algorithm will
be studied as a function of the number of photons, the amplitude of the segment misalignments and their
distribution. Finally, the accuracy achieved under conditions similar to the ones met during observation will be
discussed.
The purpose of the Active Phasing Experiment, designed under the lead of ESO, is to validate wavefront control concepts for ELT class telescopes. This instrument includes an Active Segmented Mirror, located in a pupil image. It will be mounted at a Nasmyth focus of one of the Unit Telescopes of the ESO VLT. APE contains four different types of phasing sensors, which are developed by Istituto Nazionale di Astrofisica in Arcetri, Instituto Astrofisica Canarias, Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Marseille and ESO. These phasing sensors can be compared simultaneously under identical optical and environmental conditions. All sensors receive telecentric F/15 beams with identical optical quality and intensity. Each phasing sensor can measure segmentation errors of the active segmented mirror and correct them in closed loop. The phasing process is supervised by an Internal Metrology system developed by FOGALE Nanotech and capable of measuring piston steps with an accuracy of a few nanometers. The Active Phasing Experiment is equipped with a turbulence generator to simulate atmospheric seeing between 0.45 and 0.85 arcsec in the laboratory. In addition, the Active Phasing Experiment is designed to control simultaneously with the phasing corrections the guiding and the active optics of one of the VLT Unit Telescopes. This activity is supported by the European Community (Framework Programme 6, ELT Design Study, contract No 011863).
In a framework of ELT design study our group is building an Active Phasing Experiment (APE), the main goals of which is to demonstrate the non-adaptive wavefront control scheme and technology for Extremely Large Telescope (ELT). The experiment includes verification and test of different phasing sensors and integration of a phasing wavefront sensor into a global scheme of segmented telescope active control. After a sufficient number of tests in the laboratory APE will be mounted and tested on sky at a Nasmyth focus of a VLT unit telescope. The paper presents APE as a demonstrator of particular aspects of ELT and provides a general understanding concerning the strategy of segmented mirrors active control.
The purpose of the Active Phasing Experiment, designed at ESO, is to validate wavefront control concepts for ELT class telescopes. This instrument includes an Active Segmented Mirror, located in a pupil image. It will be mounted at a Nasmyth focus of one of the unit telescopes of the ESO VLT. The Active Phasing Experiment will compare four types of phasing sensor. One of them is based on the Shack-Hartmann principle. The lenslets in the array will be placed on intersegment borders for the measurement of piston steps, as well and inside the subapertures defined by the segments for the measurement of local slopes generated by the segments and the telescope optics. The paper describes the design of the sensor optics and the lenslet array, and discusses the expected performance of the sensor under laboratory conditions and in the telescope.
The future European Extremely Large Telescope will be composed of one or two giant segmented mirrors (up to 100 m of
diameter) and of several large monolithic mirrors (up to 8 m in diameter). To limit the aberrations due to misalignments and defective surface quality it is necessary to have a proper active optics system. This active optics system must include a phasing system to limit the degradation of the PSF due to misphasing of the segmented mirrors. We will present the lastest design and development of the Active Phasing Experiment that will be tested in laboratory and on-sky connected to a VLT at Paranal in Chile. It includes an active segmented mirror, a static piston plate to simulate a secondary segmented mirror and of four phasing wavefront sensors to measure the piston, tip and tilt of the segments and the aberrations of the VLT. The four phasing sensors are the Diffraction Image Phase Sensing Instrument developed by Instituto de Astrofisica de Canarias, the Pyramid Phasing Sensor developed by Arcetri Astrophysical Observatory, the Shack-Hartmann Phasing Sensor developed by the European Southern Observatory and the Zernike Unit for Segment phasing developed by Laboratoire d'Astrophysique de Marseille. A reference measurement of the segmented mirror is made by an internal metrology developed by Fogale Nanotech. The control system of Active Phasing Experiment will perform the phasing of the segments, the guiding of the VLT and the active optics of the VLT. These activities are included in the Framework Programme 6 of the European Union.
ESO will measure pressure fluctations on the surface of the 76m radio telescope at Jodrell bank and on a scaled down model of this telescope in a wind tunnel. The data will be used to calculate the effect of pressure variations on the overall deformation of the mirror and in particular the effect on segment to segment misalignments taking into account the correction capabilities of the segment supports.
Even as a number of 8- to 10-m class telescopes come into operation worldwide, the scientific challenges these instruments and their space-based counterparts already address imply that future increases in light-gathering power and resolution will have to exceed conventional scaling factors. Indeed, it can be expected that the same progress in telescope diameter and resolution achieved throughout the century must now be realized within, at most, one or two decades. The technologies required to assert the validity of such an extrapolation appear to be within reach. Large telescopes successfully comissioned within the last decade have demonstrated key technologies such as active optics and segmentation. Furthermore, current design methods and fabrication processes imply that the technological challenge of constructing telescopes up to the 100-m range could, in some critical areas, be lower than those underlying, two decades ago, the design and construction of 8 to 10-m class telescopes. At system level, however, such giants are no size-extrapolated fusion of VLT and Keck, but fully integrated adaptive systems. In this paper we elaborate on some of the science drivers behind the OWL concept of a 100-m telescope with integrated adaptive optics capability. We identify major conceptual differences with classical, non-adaptive telescopes, and derive design drivers accordingly. We also discuss critical system and fabrication aspects, and the possible timeline for the concept to be realized.
On March 17, 2001, the VLT interferometer saw for the first time interferometric fringes on sky with its two test siderostats on a 16m baseline. Seven months later, on October 29, 2001, fringes were found with two of the four 8.2m Unit Telescopes (UTs), named Antu and Melipal, spanning a baseline of 102m. First shared risk science operations with VLTI will start in October 2002. The time between these milestones is used for further integration as well as for commissioning of the interferometer with the goal to understand all its characteristics and to optimize performance and observing procedures. In this article we will describe the various commissioning tasks carried out and present some results of our work.
We briefly recall the principle of the polychromatic laser guide star, which aims at providing measurements of the tilt of incoming wavefronts with a 100% sky coverage, We describe the main results of the feasibility study of this concept undertaken within the ELP-OA porgramme. We finally summarize our plans for a full demonstrator at Observatoire de Haute-Provence.
After the installation of the four Unit Telescopes of the VLT in the years 1998 till 2000 more than 1.5 million active optics measurements and corrections have been performed. Since all active optics data are logged together with various environmental parameters (external seeing, temperatures, wind, etc.) extensive statistical studies of the dependence of the optical performance of the telescope on the external parameters can be made. Improvements of the functionality and the performance of the telescopes include the use of a Kalman filter in the Active Optics correction loop and the possibility to adjust actively the plate scale of the telescope.
The California Extremely Large Telescope (CELT) is a project to build a 30-meter diameter telescope for research in astronomy at visible and infrared wavelengths. The current optical design calls for a primary, secondary, and tertiary mirror with Ritchey-Chretién foci at two Nasmyth platforms. The primary mirror is a mosaic of 1080 actively-stabilized hexagonal segments. This paper summarizes a CELT report that describes a step-by-step procedure for aligning the many degrees of freedom of the CELT optics.
Preliminary requirements and possible technological solutions for the next generation of ground-based optical telescopes were laid down at ESO in 1998. Since then, a phase A study has been commissioned, the objective of which is to produce a conceptual design compatible, to the maximum possible extent, with proven technology, and establish realistic plans for detailed design, site selection, construction and operation for a 100-m class optical, diffraction-limited telescope. There was no doubt about how daunting such a challenge would be, but, somewhat surprisingly, it turns out to be firmly confined to adaptive optics concepts and technologies. The telescope itself appears to be feasible within the allocated budget and without reliance on exotic assumptions. Fabrication of key subsystems is fully within the reach of a properly engineered, industrialized process. A consolidated baseline is taking shape, and alternative system and subsystem solutions are being explored, strengthening the confidence that requirements could be met. Extensive development of wavefront measurement techniques enlarges the palette of solutions available for active wavefront control of a segmented, active telescope. At system level, ESO is developing enabling experiments to validate multi-conjugate adaptive optics (MAD for Multi-conjugate Adaptive optics Demonstrator) and telescope wavefront control (APE, for Active Phasing Experiment).
The 100-m OWL telescope being considered for open-air operation, wind is an essential disturbance affecting the tracking performance and figure of the primary and secondary mirrors. ESO has undertaken a study to build up a reliable and flexible computer model of the telescope and its environment. This model can, in a cost-effective way, be used to assess the wind loading under different conditions and configurations, before entering into more expensive wind tunnel testing. This paper presents the first preliminary results obtained with Computational Fluid Dynamic (CFD) methods about the wind action on the OWL 100-m telescope, in terms of pressure time histories and in the frequency domain. Preliminary conclusions on the effect of the wind loading on the design are also drafted.
In a recent paper McLeod proposed and used measurements of the field dependence of third order astigmatism to collimate a Ritchey-Chretien telescope with the stop at the primary mirror. We adapt this method to the Cassegrain focus of the ESO Very Large Telescope, where the stop is at the secondary mirror and the telescope is only corrected for spherical aberration. In addition, we study the effects of the practical definition that the center of the field is the center of the adapter. We present measurements of the field astigmatism and discuss the accuracy of this collimation method.
We explore solutions for the optical design of the OWL 100-m telescope, and discuss their properties, advantages and drawbacks in relation to top level requirements. Combining cost, design, fabrication and functionality issues, and taking into account the scale of the telescope, we conclude that the requirements are best met with a design based on spherical primary and secondary mirrors. The combined active and adaptive correction capability envisioned for the telescope allows substantial relaxation of otherwise critical subsystems specifications. We elaborate on the telescope correction capabilities, including alignment and focusing, and derive the structure of the optical error budget.
The active optics system of the ESO Very Large Telescope has now been in operation since May 1998. All results from the wavefront analyses as well as numerous other telescope and environmental data are continuously logged. This allows for an accurate assessment of the performance of the active optics system and yields statistical correlations between the wavefront data and other telescope or external parameters.
Star trails have been taken with a CCD-camera covering a field of approximately 10'. With the telescope movement stopped the sampling rate was of the order of 40 Hz. The correlations between the centroid variations of different trails, representing the image motion perpendicular to the trails, have been calculated. The power spectra of the centroid motions are used to identify their origin. The method turns out to be feasible for the measurement of the isoplanatic angle of image motion. The results show that the correlations of the image motions can be significantly enhanced, if the time delay due to the movement of the turbulence across the field of the telescope is taken into account.
The latest developments of active optics of the ESO NTT include the reduction of friction in the lateral supports of
the primary mirror and in the positioning system of the secondary mirror. The most important remaining problem
is the local air condition. The implications for the ESO VLT and the latest developments in the design of its active
optics are discussed.
The Very Large Telescope (VLT) presently being developed at ESO is described in terms of technological advances which make its use both technically effective and feasible. The VLT capitalizes on advances in materials, polishing techniques, and mirror support systems. The VLT consists of four 8-m alt-az telescopes and a 2-m auxiliary telescope in a single-dish configuration with Zerodur meniscus mirrors passively supported on a lateral system. A discussion of the tradeoffs between glass and metal mirrors is presented, and computerized polishing is described in relation to optical specifications. The mirror is supported with 150 axial and 60 lateral supports with electromechanical actuators to modulate applied force. The active optics concept is employed via the flexibility of the primary mirror, which generates elastomechanical deformations and the position and orientation of the secondary mirror.
Up to now telescope optics were usually specified in terms of geometrical errors which cannot be linked to the actual performance under atmospheric turbulence limitation. A more realistic approach is proposed which takes into account atmospheric seeing and diffraction. The main advantage of the method is that at the same time it describes the final performance of the telescope, and gives to the optical manufacturer the maximum freedom to define and possibly modify its own manufacturing error budget.
The support system of the 8.2 meter primary mirrors of the ESO Very Large Telescope consists of 150 axial support at the back surface of the mirror and appr. 60 lateral supports at the outer and inner edge of the mirror. This paper describes the general design of the support system and the prototypes of the axial actuators.
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