A second-order fiber interleaving filter that can provide a channel interleaving capability in second-order comb spectra is proposed and demonstrated on the basis of a polarization-diversified loop comprised of a four-port polarization beam splitter, four rotatable half-wave plates (HWPs), and three high birefringence fiber (HBF) segments. Each HBF segment is positioned between two adjoining HWPs, and two HWPs located among the three HBF segments determine the effective angular orientation difference among their principal axes, or fast and slow axes. At specific orientation angles of the four HWPs, second-order comb spectra such as flat-top and narrow-band ones could be obtained with a free spectral range (FSR) of ∼0.792 nm. In particular, the frequency interleaving of these second-order comb spectra, that is, a half FSR switching, could be implemented by controlling two out of four HWPs, which is the first demonstration of the interleaving operation in second-order comb spectra without expensive birefringence modulators. These spectral characteristics of the proposed filter were theoretically predicted and experimentally demonstrated.
Previous studies have shown that photothemal therapy combined with high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) can provide a promising method to achieve rapid thermal coagulation during surgical procedures. The current study investigated the feasibility of the laser-integrated high intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) application to treat bladder tumors by enhancing thermal effects and therapeutic depth in vitro. To generate thermal coagulation, a single element HIFU transducer with a central frequency of 2.0 MHz was used to transmit acoustic energy to 15 fresh porcine bladders injected with an artificial tumor (100 µl gelatin and hemoglobin solution) in vitro. Simultaneously, an 80-W 532-nm laser system was also implemented to induce thermal necrosis in the targeted tissue. The intensity of 570 W/cm2 at the focus of HIFU and laser energy of 0.9 W were applied to all the samples for 40 s. The temperature rise increased up to about 1.6 or 3 folds (i.e., ΔT=32±3.8 K for laser-integrated HIFU, ΔT=20±6.5 K for HIFU only, and ΔT=11±5.6 K for laser only). The estimated lesion depth also increased by 1.3 and 2 folds during the dual-thermal treatment, in comparison with the treatment by either HIFU or laser. The results indicated that the laser-integrated HIFU treatment can be an efficient hyperthermic method for tumor coagulation.
Laser light has been widely used as a surgical tool to treat benign prostate hyperplasia with high laser power.
The purpose of this study was to validate the feasibility of photoactive dye injection to enhance light absorption
and eventually to facilitate tissue ablation with low laser power. The experiment was implemented on chicken
breast due to minimal optical absorption Amaranth (AR), black dye (BD), hemoglobin powder (HP), and
endoscopic marker (EM), were selected and tested in vitro with a customized 532-nm laser system with radiant
exposure ranging from 0.9 to 3.9 J/cm2. Light absorbance and ablation threshold were measured with UV-VIS
spectrometer and Probit analysis, respectively, and compared to feature the function of the injected dyes.
Ablation performance with dye-injection was evaluated in light of radiant exposure, dye concentration, and
number of injection. Higher light absorption by injected dyes led to lower ablation threshold as well as more
efficient tissue removal in the order of AR, BD, HP, and EM. Regardless of the injected dyes, ablation
efficiency principally increased with input parameter. Among the dyes, AR created the highest ablation rate of
44.2±0.2 μm/pulse due to higher absorbance and lower ablation threshold. Preliminary tests on canine prostate
with a hydraulic injection system demonstrated that 80 W with dye injection yielded comparable ablation
efficiency to 120 W with no injection, indicating 33 % reduced laser power with almost equivalent performance.
In-depth comprehension on photoactive dye-enhanced tissue ablation can help accomplish efficient and safe
laser treatment for BPH with low power application.
The feasibility of photoacoustic imaging (PAI) application was evaluated to map punctured blood vessels thermally treated by high-intensity focused ultrasound (HIFU) for hemostasis. A single-element HIFU transducer with a central frequency of 2.0 MHz, was used to induce thermal hemostasis on the punctured arteries. The HIFU-treated lesion was imaged and localized by high-contrast PAI guidance. The results showed that complete hemostasis was achieved after treatment of the damaged blood vessels within 25 to 52 s at the acoustic intensity of 3600 W/cm2. The coagulation time for the animal artery was ∼20% longer than that of the phantom possibly due to a lower Young’s modulus. The reconstructed PA images were able to distinguish the treated area from the surrounding tissue in terms of augmented signal amplitudes (up to three times). Spectroscopic studies demonstrated that the optimal imaging wavelength was found to be 700 nm in order to reconstruct high-contrast photoacoustic images on HIFU-treated lesions. The proposed PAI integrated with HIFU treatment can be a feasible application to obtain safe and rapid hemostasis for acute arterial bleeding.
High Intensity Focused Ultrasound (HIFU) technology provides a feasible method of achieving thermal coagulation during surgical procedures. One of the potential clinical benefits of HIFU can induce immediate hemostasis without suturing. The objective of this study was to investigate the efficiency of a HIFU system for blood coagulation on severe vascular injury. HIFU treatment was implemented immediately after bleeding in artery. The ultrasound probe was made of piezoelectric material, generating a central frequency of 2.0 MHz as well as an ellipsoidal focal spot of 2 mm in lateral dimension and 10 mm in axial dimension. Acoustic coagulation was employed on a perfused chicken artery model in vitro. A surgical incision (1 to 2 mm long) was made with a scapel on the arterial wall, and heparinized autologous blood was made to leak out from the incision with a syringe pump. A total of 5 femoral artery incisions was treated with the HIFU beam. The intensity of 4500 W/cm2 at the focus was applied for all treatments. Complete hemostasis was achieved in all treatments, along with the treatment times of 25 to 50 seconds. The estimated intraoperative blood loss was from 2 to 5 mL. The proposed HIFU system may provide an effective method for immediate blood coagulation for arteries and veins in clinical applications.
A novel balloon catheter-based diffusing optical device was designed and evaluated to assist in treating excessive menstrual bleeding. A synthetic fused-silica fiber was micro-machined precisely to create scattering segments on a 25 mm long fiber tip for uniform light distribution. A visible wavelength (λ=532 nm) was used to specifically target the endometrium due to the high vascularity of the uterine wall. Optical simulation presented 30% wider distribution of photons along with approximately 40% higher irradiance induced by addition of a glass cap to the diffuser tip. Incorporation of the optical diffuser with a polyurethane balloon catheter considerably enhanced coagulation depth and area (i.e., 3.5 mm and 18.9 cm2 at 1 min irradiation) in tissue in vitro. The prototype device demonstrated the coagulation necrosis of 2.8±1.2 mm (n=18) and no thermal damage to myometrium in in vivo caprine models. A prototype 5 cm long balloon catheter-assisted optical diffuser was also evaluated with a cadaveric human uterus to confirm the coagulative response of the uterine tissue as well as to identify the further design improvement and clinical applicability. The proposed catheter-based diffusing optical device can be a feasible therapeutic tool to photocoagulate endometrial cell layers in an efficient and safe manner.
Laser speckle imaging (LSI) involves analysis of reflectance images collected during coherent optical excitation of an object to compute wide-field maps of tissue blood flow. An intrinsic limitation of LSI for resolving microvascular architecture is that its signal depends on relative motion of interrogated red blood cells. Hence, with LSI, small-diameter arterioles, venules, and capillaries are difficult to resolve due to the slow flow speeds associated with such vasculature. Furthermore, LSI characterization of subsurface blood flow is subject to blurring due to scattering, further limiting the ability of LSI to resolve or quantify blood flow in small vessels. Here, we show that magnetic activation of superparamagnetic iron oxide (SPIO) nanoparticles modulate the speckle flow index (SFI) values estimated from speckle contrast analysis of collected images. With application of an ac magnetic field to a solution of stagnant SPIO particles, an apparent increase in SFI is induced. Furthermore, with application of a focused dc magnetic field, a focal decrease in SFI values is induced. Magnetomotive LSI may enable wide-field mapping of suspicious tissue regions, enabling subsequent high-resolution optical interrogation of these regions. Similarly, subsequent photoactivation of intravascular SPIO nanoparticles could then be performed to induce selective photothermal destruction of unwanted vasculature.
We demonstrate the detection of iron oxide nanoparticles taken up by macrophages in atherosclerotic plaque with differential phase optical coherence tomography (DP-OCT). Magneto mechanical detection of nanoparticles is demonstrated in hyperlipidemic Watanabe and balloon-injured fat-fed New Zealand white rabbits injected with monocrystalline iron oxide nanoparticles (MIONs) of <40 nm diam. MIONs taken up by macrophages was excited by an oscillating magnetic flux density and resulting nanometer tissue surface displacement was detected by DP-OCT. Frequency response of tissue surface displacement in response to an externally applied magnetic flux density was twice the stimulus frequency as expected from the equations of motion for the nanoparticle cluster.
Endoscopy is a medical technology used to inspect the inner surface of organs such as the colon. During endoscopic
inspection of the colon or colonoscopy, a tiny video camera generates a video signal, which is displayed on a monitor for
manual interpretation by physicians. In practice, these images are not typically captured, which may be attributed by lack
of tools for automatic capturing, automatic analysis of important contents, and quick and easy access to these contents.
However, this lack of tools is being addressed by recent research efforts. This paper presents the description and
evaluation results of novel software that automates the capture of all images of a single colonoscopy into a single
digitized video file. The system uses metrics based on color and motion over time to determine whether the images are
derived from inside a single patient. During testing our system extracted 173 videos totaling 70 hours of endoscopic
video, out of 230 hours of raw video, with a segment-based sensitivity of 100% and specificity of 99%. No procedures
were missed. Two video files contained only a non-patient video signal. The features of our system are robust enough to
be suitable for day-to-day use in medical practice.
In the US, colorectal cancer is the second leading cause of all cancer deaths behind lung cancer. Colorectal polyps are the precursor lesions of colorectal cancer. Therefore, early detection of polyps and at the same time removal of these precancerous lesions is one of the most important goals of colonoscopy. To objectively document detection and removal of colorectal polyps for quality purposes, and to facilitate real-time detection of polyps in the future, we have initiated a computer-based research program that analyzes video files created during colonoscopy. For computer-based detection of polyps, texture based techniques have been proposed. A major limitation of the existing texture-based analytical methods is that they depend on a fixed-size analytical window. Such a fixed-sized window may work for still images, but is not efficient for analysis of colonoscopy video files, where a single polyp can have different relative sizes and color features, depending on the viewing position and distance of the camera. In addition, the existing methods do not consider shape features. To overcome these problems, we here propose a novel polyp region segmentation method primarily based on the elliptical shape that nearly all small polyps and many larger polyps possess. Experimental results indicate that our proposed polyp detection method achieves a sensitivity and specificity of 93% and 98%, respectively.
Differential phase optical coherence tomography (DPOCT) is introduced to measure optical path length changes in response to pulsed laser irradiation (585 nm). An analytical equation that includes thermoelastic surface displacement and thermorefractive index change is derived to predict optical path length change in response to pulsed laser irradiation for both "confined surface" and "free surface" model systems. The derived equation is tested by comparing predicted values with data recorded from experiments using two model systems. Thermorefractive index change and the thermal expansion coefficient are deduced from differential phase change (d) and temperature increase (T0) measurements. The measured n(T0)(T0)+dn/dT[=1.74·10–4±1.7·10–6 (1/K)] in the free surface experiment matches with the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) data value [=1.77·10–4 (1/K)]. Exclusion of lateral thermal expansion in the analytical model for the confined surface experiment causes difference between the measured dn/dT[=–2.3·10–4±7.3·10–6(1/K)] and the NIST value [=–9.45·10–5 (1/K)]. In spite of the difference in the confined surface experiment, results of our studies indicate DPOCT can detect dynamic optical path length change in response to pulsed laser irradiation with high sensitivity, and applications to tissue diagnostics may be possible.
Wireless Capsule Endoscopy (WCE) is a relatively new technology (FDA approved in 2002) allowing doctors to view most of the small intestine. Other endoscopies such as colonoscopy, upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, push enteroscopy, and intraoperative enteroscopy could be used to visualize up to the stomach, duodenum, colon, and terminal ileum, but there existed no method to view most of the small intestine without surgery. With the miniaturization of wireless and camera technologies came the ability to view the entire gestational track with little effort. A tiny disposable video capsule is swallowed, transmitting two images per second to a small data receiver worn by the patient on a belt. During an approximately 8-hour course, over 55,000 images are recorded to a worn device and then downloaded to a computer for later examination. Typically, a medical clinician spends more than two hours to analyze a WCE video. Research has been attempted to automatically find abnormal regions (especially bleeding) to reduce the time needed to analyze the videos. The manufacturers also provide the software tool to detect the bleeding called Suspected Blood Indicator (SBI), but its accuracy is not high enough to replace human examination. It was reported that the sensitivity and the specificity of SBI were about 72% and 85%, respectively. To address this problem, we propose a technique to detect the bleeding regions automatically utilizing the Expectation Maximization (EM) clustering algorithm. Our experimental results indicate that the proposed bleeding detection method achieves 92% and 98% of sensitivity and specificity, respectively.
Speckle in optical coherence tomography (OCT) images originates in the high spatial coherence of incident light that enables interference of light backscattered from spatially heterogenous tissue specimens. We report results of a numerical simulation and an experiment to test speckle reduction using a partially spatially coherent source. A Gaussian-Schell model for a partially spatially coherent source is used in the OCT simulation. For the experiment, such a source was generated by a spatially coherent boardband light source and a multimode fiber. The advantage of using a multimode fiber in combination with a broadband source is the large number of photons per coherence volume. To illustrate speckle reduction with a partially spatially coherent source, we record low-coherence interferograms of a scattering surface using single-mode and multimode source fibers. Interferograms recorded using a single-mode source fiber are indicative of those observed using conventional OCT. Speckle in OCT images recorded using a multimode source fiber is substantially reduced.
Advances in video technology are being incorporated into today’s healthcare practice. For example, colonoscopy is an important screening tool for colorectal cancer. Colonoscopy allows for the inspection of the entire colon and provides the ability to perform a number of therapeutic operations during a single procedure. During a colonoscopic procedure, a tiny video camera at the tip of the endoscope generates a video signal of the internal mucosa of the colon. The video data are displayed on a monitor for real-time analysis by the endoscopist. Other endoscopic procedures include upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, enteroscopy, bronchoscopy, cystoscopy, and laparoscopy. However, a significant number of out-of-focus frames are included in this type of videos since current endoscopes are equipped with a single, wide-angle lens that cannot be focused. The out-of-focus frames do not hold any useful information. To reduce the burdens of the further processes such as computer-aided image processing or human expert’s examinations, these frames need to be removed. We call an out-of-focus frame as non-informative frame and an in-focus frame as informative frame. We propose a new technique to classify the video frames into two classes, informative and non-informative frames using a combination of Discrete Fourier Transform (DFT), Texture Analysis, and K-Means Clustering. The proposed technique can evaluate the frames without any reference image, and does not need any predefined threshold value. Our experimental studies indicate that it achieves over 96% of four different performance metrics (i.e. precision, sensitivity, specificity, and accuracy).
Colonoscopy is an important screening procedure for colorectal cancer. During this procedure, the endoscopist visually inspects the colon. Human inspection, however, is not without error. We hypothesize that colonoscopy videos may contain additional valuable information missed by the endoscopist. Video segmentation is the first necessary step for the content-based video analysis and retrieval to provide efficient access to the important images and video segments from a large colonoscopy video database. Based on the unique characteristics of colonoscopy videos, we introduce a new scheme to detect and remove blurry frames, and segment the videos into shots based on the contents. Our experimental results show that the average precision and recall of the proposed scheme are over 90% for the detection of non-blurry images. The proposed method of blurry frame detection and shot segmentation is extensible to the videos captured from other endoscopic procedures such as upper gastrointestinal endoscopy, enteroscopy, cystoscopy, and laparoscopy.
Reducing noise in image query processing is no doubt one of the key elements to achieve high retrieval effectiveness. However, existing techniques are not able to eliminate noise from similarity matching since they capture the features of the entire image are or pre-perceived objects at the database build time. In this paper we address this outstanding issue by proposing a similarity mode for noise- free queries. In our approach, users formulate their queries by specifying objects of interest, and image similarity is based only on these relevant objects. We discuss how our approach can handle translation and scaling matching as well as how space overhead can be minimized. Our experiments show that this approach, with 1/16 the storage overhead, outperforms techniques for rectangular queries and a related technique by a significant margin.
Shot boundary detection (SBD) is the first fundamental step to managing video databases. It segments video data into the basic units for indexing and retrieval. Many automatic SBD techniques exist. They, however, are based on sequential search, and therefore too expensive for practical use. To address this problem, we explore a different direction to SBD in this paper. We investigate a non-linear approach in which most video frames do not need to be compared. This idea is fundamentally different from all existing methods. In fact, it is orthogonal to these schemes in the sense that it can be applied to substantially improve their performance. Our experiments show that this idea speeds up a conventional method based on color histograms up to 16 times while preserving the same accuracy. On the average, the improvement is five time according to our experiments on 26 videos of six different types.
Scene is considered a good unit for indexing and retrieving data from large video databases. In this paper, we present a new content-based approach for detecting and classifying scene changes in video sequences. Our technique can detect and classify not only abrupt changes (i.e., hard cuts) but also gradual changes such as fades and dissolves. We compute background difference between frames, and use background tracking to handle various camera motions. Although our method processes significantly less data, it results in more semantically rich pieces (i.e., scenes). Our experiments on various types of videos indicate that the proposed technique is much less sensitive to the predefined threshold values, and is very effective in reducing the number of false hits. Our approach is particularly suitable for very large video databases because it is both space and time efficient.
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