This work presents a set of measurements collected with a research prototype synthetic aperture acoustic (SAA) imaging
system. SAA imaging is an emerging technique that can serve as an inexpensive alternative or logical complement to
synthetic aperture radar (SAR). The SAA imaging system uses an acoustic transceiver (speaker and microphone) to
project acoustic radiation and record backscatter from a scene. The backscattered acoustic energy is used to generate
information about the location, morphology, and mechanical properties of various objects. SAA detection has a potential
advantage when compared to SAR in that non-metallic objects are not readily detectable with SAR. To demonstrate
basic capability of the approach with non-metallic objects, targets are placed in a simple, featureless scene. Nylon cords
of five diameters, ranging from 2 to 15 mm, and a joined pair of 3 mm fiber optic cables are placed in various
configurations on flat asphalt that is free of clutter. The measurements were made using a chirp with a bandwidth of 2-15
kHz. The recorded signal is reconstructed to form a two-dimensional image of the distribution of acoustic scatterers
within the scene. The goal of this study was to identify basic detectability characteristics for a range of sizes and
configurations of non-metallic cord. It is shown that for sufficiently small angles relative to the transceiver path, the
SAA approach creates adequate backscatter for detectability.
Synthetic aperture image reconstruction applied to outdoor acoustic recordings is presented. Acoustic imaging
is an alternate method having several military relevant advantages such as being immune to RF jamming, superior spatial
resolution, capable of standoff side and forward-looking scanning, and relatively low cost, weight and size when
compared to 0.5 - 3 GHz ground penetrating radar technologies. Synthetic aperture acoustic imaging is similar to
synthetic aperture radar, but more akin to synthetic aperture sonar technologies owing to the nature of longitudinal or
compressive wave propagation in the surrounding acoustic medium. The system's transceiver is a quasi mono-static
microphone and audio speaker pair mounted on a rail 5meters in length. Received data sampling rate is 80 kHz with a 2-
15 kHz Linear Frequency Modulated (LFM) chirp, with a pulse repetition frequency (PRF) of 10 Hz and an inter-pulse
period (IPP) of 50 milliseconds. Targets are positioned within the acoustic scene at slant range of two to ten meters on
grass, dirt or gravel surfaces, and with and without intervening metallic chain link fencing. Acoustic image
reconstruction results in means for literal interpretation and quantifiable analyses. A rudimentary technique
characterizes acoustic scatter at the ground surfaces. Targets within the acoustic scene are first digitally spotlighted and
further processed, providing frequency and aspect angle dependent signature information.
The question of whether particle size affects modulation efficiency, defined as the ratio of ultrasound-modulated
fluorescence (UMF) signal to DC (direct current) signal, of the fluorescence emission from four different sized
fluorescent particles was investigated experimentally. The four particles are streptavidin-conjugated Alexa Fluo 647 (~5
nm in diameter) and three carboxylate-modified fluorescent microspheres (FM) with different diameters of 0.02, 0.2, and
1.0 μm. Modulation efficiency was evaluated as a function of the fluorophore size and fluorophore concentration. The
modulation efficiency was improved about two times when the size of the fluorescent particles is increased from 5 nm to
1 μm. This result implies that using large fluorescence particles can slightly improve the modulation efficiency but the
improvement is limited.
A novel outdoor synthetic aperture acoustic (SAA) system consists of a microphone and loudspeaker traveling along a
6.3-meter rail system. This is an extension from a prior indoor laboratory measurement system in which selected targets
were insonified while suspended in air. Here, the loudspeaker and microphone are aimed perpendicular to their direction
of travel along the rail. The area next to the rail is insonified and the microphone records the reflected acoustic signal,
while the travel of the transceiver along the rail creates a synthetic aperture allowing imaging of the scene. Ground
surfaces consisted of weathered asphalt and short grass. Several surface-laid objects were arranged on the ground for
SAA imaging. These included rocks, concrete masonry blocks, grout covered foam blocks; foliage obscured objects and
several spherical canonical targets such as a bowling ball, and plastic and metal spheres. The measured data are
processed and ground targets are further analyzed for characteristics and features amenable for discrimination. This
paper includes a description of the measurement system, target descriptions, synthetic aperture processing approach and
preliminary findings with respect to ground surface and target characteristics.
A synthetic aperture acoustic approach is used as a standoff method to assess material properties of a typical
cinder block, referred to as a concrete masonry unit (CMU), and a variety of CMU surrogates. The objective is to
identify anomalies in CMU wall surfaces. The acoustic specular return and phase change across the blocks are the
fundamental measurements of interest. The CMU surrogates are created from commercially available closed cell
expanding foam. Results from three test articles are presented that show potentially exploitable differences in terms of
acoustic magnitude and acoustic phase response between the surrogates and typical CMUs. The test articles are; a
typical CMU, a foam block, and a foam block with an embedded steel object. All test articles are similar in size and
shape, and both foam blocks are covered in grout so that surface appearance closely matches that of a CMU. The results
show that each of the test articles has characteristics that may be used for discrimination and anomaly detection.
In this paper, we consider a linear piezoelectric structure which employs a fast-switched, capacitively shunted subsystem
to yield a tunable vibration absorber or energy harvester. The dynamics of the system is modeled as a hybrid system,
where the switching law is considered as a control input and the ambient vibration is regarded as an external disturbance.
It is shown that under mild assumptions of existence and uniqueness of the solution of this hybrid system, averaging
theory can be applied, provided that the original system dynamics is periodic. The resulting averaged system is
controlled by the duty cycle of a driven pulse-width modulated signal. The response of the averaged system
approximates the performance of the original fast-switched linear piezoelectric system. It is analytically shown that the
averaging approximation can be used to predict the electromechanically coupled system modal response as a function of
the duty cycle of the input switching signal. This prediction is experimentally validated for the system consisting of a
piezoelectric bimorph connected to an electromagnetic exciter. Experimental results show that the analytical predictions
are observed in practice over a fixed "effective range" of switching frequencies. The same experiments show that the
response of the switched system is insensitive to an increase in switching frequency above the effective frequency range.
KEYWORDS: Laser Doppler velocimetry, Mirrors, Velocity measurements, Sensors, Mining, Vibrometry, Laser systems engineering, 3D acquisition, Data acquisition, Land mines
A novel system for using a single-point Laser Doppler vibrometer (LDV) to measure surface normal velocity
components of non-planar targets has been developed. A description of this measurement system is presented, along with
a discussion of results and relative merits compared with conventional scanning LDV systems. Data from sample
measurements taken on an anti-tank landmine buried in sand are presented. It is shown that measurements of the same
surface wave using this system and a conventional system can differ by as much as 75%.
A conformal scanning laser vibrometer was used to determine the vibrational modes of a 17-note portion of a C-lead
tenor steelpan. The data represents the surface-normal motion of the instrument in response to an impulsive excitation
intended to mimic the strike of a mallet. A description of this novel measurement system is presented, followed by the
surface velocity data and a summary of response shapes and the frequencies at which those responses occur. The data
indicate that individual note areas respond when adjacent or non-adjacent notes are struck, and clearly illustrate the
complex vibration of the steelpan and the coupling between notes that produce the rich distinctive nature of the steelpan
sound.
Remote acoustic or seismic forms of excitation for laser Doppler vibration landmine detection are low false alarm rate
detection strategies. A more recent approach now under investigation includes a direct mechanical excitation through a
prodder or probe. In this research, we report on simple laboratory measurements of the VS-1.6 landmine undergoing
direct mechanical excitation from a modified prodder while measuring the landmine's pressure plate vibrational
response with a scanning laser Doppler vibrometer. The direct mechanical excitation mechanism, located near the
prodding end of a rod, consists of a miniature piezoelectric stack actuator. We additionally compare direct excitation to
both acoustic and seismic methods in a large sandbox filled with dry sand. We show that for the landmine buried almost
flush, direct contact mechanical excitation compares favorably to both seismic and acoustic excitation responses for the
(0,1) mode of the pressure plate. We also observe additional features not previously seen in either seismic or acoustic
excitation.
Conventional control surfaces have been used in most carbon fiber composite, membrane-wing autonomous
micro air vehicles (MAV). In some cases, vehicle morphing is achieved using servo actuators to articulate vehicle
kinematic joints, or to deform crucial wing / tail surfaces. However, articulated lifting surfaces and articulated
wing sections are difficult to instrument and fabricate in a repeatable fashion. Assembly is complex and time
consuming. The goal of this paper is to establish the feasibility of morphing wings on autonomous MAVs that
are actuated via active materials. Active actuation is achieved via a type of piezoceramic composite called Macro
Fiber Composite (MFC). This paper investigates the structural dynamics of morphing wings on MAVs that are
actuated via active composites. This paper continues the work presented in1 by considering structural dynamic
characteristics of the morphing vehicle determined through Scanning Laser Doppler Vibrometry (SLDV).
This study compares theoretical predictions to experimental measurements of squeeze film damping of MEMS cantilevers in a fluid environment. A series of MEMS cantilevers were fabricated on a silicon wafer. Each of the silicon beams was 2 μm thick and 18 μm wide. The lengths range from 100 to 800 μm and the air-filled gap between the cantilever and the substrate was 6 μm. An analytic model for squeeze film damping was used to predict the corresponding quality factor Qsqueeze film (the ratio of the mechanical energy stored in the oscillator to the energy dissipated per cycle) for these cantilevers. The results from the modeling are compared to experimental results obtained using a Polytec MSA-400 Micro System Analyzer.
In this paper the mechanical characterization of a silicon based micro paddle oscillator by using a coupled experimental-numerical analysis is demonstrated. A Finite Element Model has been developed in order to study the mechanical behaviour of the system. The numerical model validation is performed by using the laser Doppler vibrometry technique that allows to dynamically characterize the systems: to find resonance frequencies, distinguish mode shapes, revealing the existence of all the vibrational modes, nonlinear behaviour and also to investigate the mechanism of mechanical energy dissipation that play a fundamental role in the performance of the devices (Quality factor assessment). This paper shows how a coupled experimental-numerical analysis produces a validate model that can be employed in order to detect the critical parameters (geometry, material and residual stress) that directly influence the performances of the oscillator and, in this way, to optimize the system design.
Probe force and ground surface velocity measurements are obtained using laser Doppler vibrometry for one specific excitation contact point on the casing of the VS1.6 Antitank landmine for surface laid and buried scenarios. Probe contact force and ground velocity measurements were taken over a 1 KHz bandwidth (0 Hz to 1 KHz). Combined velocity magnitude and phase images are provided as laboratory results. The proposed excitation technique has the potential for significantly greater signal bandwidth and amplitude compared to remote acoustic and seismic excitation strategies.
We present progress we have made in developing a structural acoustic-based methodology allowing interior fault detection and localization in plate-like structures using only processed vibration data readily available on the structure's surface. Our methods use measurements of surface displacement associated with vibration of the structure caused by externally applied forces. These forces can be created simply by a local actuator in direct contact with the structure or in some cases by an incident airborne acoustic wave. The measured normal surface displacements, uz(x, y), are then inverted locally using various mathematically optimized algorithms in order to obtain a desired material parameter, for example, the elastic modulus, whose spatial variation then serves to detect and localize the fault. This structural acoustic approach is not limited to any particular length scale requiring only that the structure be mechanically excited at frequencies for which the structural wavelength is within an order of magnitude of the fault dimension and that the dynamic surface displacements be mapped with a spatial resolution smaller than the fault size. We present the results of deploying the structural acoustic technique in the US Capitol Building to locate faults within plaster walls and ceilings bearing large expanses of precious nineteenth century frescoes, in composite airframe skins in laboratory experiments to detect and locate de-bonding of thin (~1mm) stiffeners and frames, and in micro-structures to detect and locate faults in silicon micro-oscillators and their supporting structures with resolutions approaching 1μm.
A large-scale survey (~700 m2) of frescos and wall paintings was undertaken in the U.S. Capitol Building in Washington, D.C. to identify regions that may need structural repair due to detachment, delamination, or other defects. The survey encompassed eight pre-selected spaces including: Brumidi's first work at the Capitol building in the House Appropriations Committee room; the Parliamentarian's office; the House Speaker's office; the Senate Reception room; the President's Room; and three areas of the Brumidi Corridors. Roughly 60% of the area surveyed was domed or vaulted ceilings, the rest being walls. Approximately 250 scans were done ranging in size from 1 to 4 m2. The typical mesh density was 400 scan points per square meter. A common approach for post-processing time series called Proper Orthogonal Decomposition, or POD, was adapted to frequency-domain data in order to extract the essential features of the structure. We present a POD analysis for one of these panels, pinpointing regions that have experienced severe substructural degradation.
Joseph Vignola, Harry Simpson, Xiao Liu, Brian Houston, Douglas Photiadis, Martin Marcus, Jacek Jarzynski, Bojan Ilic, Dave Czaplewski, Lidija Sekaric, James Butler
Micro electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) devices are being developed for a broad range of applications. In most cases, the sensitivity of the final device is a function of the intrinsic dissipation of mechanical energy, or Q-1. We use laser Doppler vibrometery (LDV) and finite element modeling to examine and quantify a variety of different dissipation mechanisms that are important for the room temperature operation of MEMS oscillator devices. In this work we examine dissipation mechanisms that include phonon-phonon scattering, thermoelastic dissipation, acoustic radiation, viscous drag and attachment loss. We examine three different systems experimentally and analytically to demonstrate that different loss mechanisms are dominant in each case at room temperature. Full-field LDV measurements are used to show that resonant reflectors are responding as predicted by finite element modeling and reduce the torque that the oscillator imposes on its foundation. This result shows that the attachment loss can be mitigated with the use of resonant reflectors and by careful design and fabrication. However, this reduction in the attachment loss does not reduce the Q-1 at room temperature for this device. From this we conclude that for these oscillators, attachment loss is not an important dissipation mechanism at room temperature, and the loss is due to some other intrinsic mechanisms mentioned above. We find that at pressure greater than 1O-2 Ton acoustic radiation dominates for our MEMS paddle oscillators, while for a diamond oscillator, 10-3 Ton is the low-pressure for when radiation damping is dominant.
The mechanical motion of a new class of micro-mechanical devices, known as micro electro-mechanical systems oscillators, is examined using the laser Doppler technique. Currently, experimental methods based on capacitance, induction, and Fabry-Perot interferometry are used to find resonance frequencies and to establish quality factors or Q's. The technique described in this paper is capable of distinguishing mode shapes, yielding calibrated displacements, and revealing the existence of flexural modes, in addition to finding resonance frequencies and establishing Q's as the other techniques do. Because full- field laser vibrometry measurements provide an understanding of the modal composition of the systems, it can be used to refine the design and construction of these devices.
Experimental data were collected in this study and used to identify structural characteristics and features that ultimately effect sound radiation on an aircraft fuselage panel.A periodically reinforced flat plate was excited by an electromagnetic shaker and the 3D velocity vector response was measured at an array of points on the surface using a 3D laser vibrometer mounted on a scanning robot. These velocity measurements, along with force cell data, were used to produce force normalized modal mosaics and dispersion curves of both the out-of-plane and in-plane data. Results show low frequency global deformation of the structure occurs when the structural wavelengths are longer than the spacing between the reinforcing members. Local modes become evident when wavelengths are comparable to the spacing of the reinforces. We also observe evidence of in-plane resonances and Bloch wave effects.
An all fiber optic multi-axis laser vibrometer system has been constructed for measurements associated with structural acoustics research. This unique experimental capability was developed to allow the measurement of full 3D velocity vectors of both the interior and exterior of a structurally complex submerged cylindrical shell. The system consists of two laser vibrometers positioned by scanning robots. The design of this system as well as some preliminary measurements will be discussed.
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