The ALBA Synchrotron (Barcelona, Spain) has built MINERVA a new X-ray facility designed to support the development of the NewATHENA mission (Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics), whose objective is to observe and study energetic objects in space (accretion disk around black holes, large-scale structure, etc...). MINERVA is dedicated to assemble stacks manufactured by cosine into mirror modules (MM), building blocks of the NewATHENA optics. This new beamline is originally based on the X-ray parallel beam facility XPBF 2.0 at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB at BESSY II) but also includes additional features on the scanning scheme to improve the characterization time of each MM produced. Interoperability between MINERVA and XPBF 2.0 is nonetheless preserved to boost the mass production of the MMs and characterize their performance. MINERVA is now in operation and has been funded by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation.
MINERVA is an X-ray beamline designed to contribute to the development of the ATHENA1, 14 mission (Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics) at the ALBA synchrotron2 (Barcelona, Spain). Originally based on the monochromatic pencil beam XPBF 2.0 at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB at BESSY II), MINERVA will be furnished with the necessary equipment to produce and characterize the mirror modules (MM) of ATHENA by adjusting and assembling 4 SPO stacks together (manufactured by cosine measurement systems) 4,5. The construction of MINERVA is also an opportunity to bring some innovations in order to improve the characterization time of each MM produced6. Full interoperability with XPBF 2.0 is secured to allow operators to work on both beamlines the same way. The MINERVA project started in March 2020 and the last past months were dedicated to the definition, design, procurement, partial assembly and installation of the different beamline components. MINERVA is funded by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation and will be completed for operation at the turn 2022/2023.
We present the stitching interferometry system of ALBA. It has been designed for measuring the surface of long X-ray optics (up to 1.5 meters) with sub-nanometer accuracy, thanks to effectively removing the systematic errors introduced by the flat reference. We discuss the main features and measurement routines of our setup, including the aspects related to error removal. The instrument is based on a Fizeau interferometer, Zygo Verifire HD, with a 100 mm aperture, which is used to take different sub-aperture measurements. The interferometer is mounted on top of an in-house built scanning and positioning stage with four degrees of freedom: horizontal displacement, vertical displacement, yaw rotation, and roll rotation. These four degrees of freedom are essential for obtaining sub-nanometer accuracies. Horizontal and vertical displacements are needed to remove ambiguities in the surface reconstruction, and yaw and roll rotations are required to always align the interferometer to each sub-aperture to minimize retracing errors. The relative orientation between the optical bench and the interferometer platform, which comprises all three orientation angles, is measured by an external autocollimator and two inclinometers. Tracking the interferometer trajectory allows us to remove the guidance errors and solve curvature and twist ambiguities. All the stitching acquisition process is automatized. We finally show the first commissioning results and we discuss the factors that limit the current accuracy of our system. In the first results, we have reconstructed the reference flat with a repeatability of 50 picometers rms.
The ALBA synchrotron (Barcelona, Spain) is building MINERVA a new X-ray beamline designed to support the development of the ATHENA mission (Advanced Telescope for High Energy Astrophysics). The beamline design is originally based on the monochromatic pencil beam XPBF 2.0 at the Physikalisch-Technische Bundesanstalt (PTB), at BESSY II. MINERVA will provide metrology capabilities to integrate stacks produced by cosine company into a mirror module (MM) and characterize them. It will provide photons with a fixed energy of 1.0 keV with a residual divergence below 1 × 1 arcsec2 rms. The beam dimensions at the mirror module is adjustable from 10 × 10 μm2 up to 8 × 8 mm2. Interoperability between MINERVA and XPBF 2.0 will be preserved in order to reinforce and boost the production and characterization of the mirror modules. MINERVA is funded by the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation. Still in the detailed design phase, MINERVA will take 2 years to be completed for operation in 2022.
The Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) is undergoing an upgrade to a double source setup to provide eight experimental hutches (five existing and three new) with either high-repetition or high-intensity pulses and highly coherent X-ray beams. The photon transportation and distribution to each hutch relies on, among other elements, bendable mirrors. Given the coherence of the LCLS source, and to avoid introducing wavefront distortions beyond workable limits, the mirrors need to have extremely smooth surfaces, with a figure compliant with the nominal profile (usually elliptical). The effectiveness and the accuracy of the bending system and of the actuators over the entire length of the mirror (up to 1.2 m) need to be assessed by an appropriate metrology system. Long Trace Profilometry (LTP) is a suitable technique to characterize a slightly-curved surface mirror profile with very high sensitivity, provided that the optomechanical system implementation enables sensitivity and accuracy values compatible with the mentioned surface quality requirements. In this paper, we show the status and performance of the LTP under development at LCLS. The LTP essentially consists of an advanced optical head that endows a laser beam with sharp interferential features to increase its resolution and detects the optical lever of the beam reflected by the sample, plus a high-precision gantry system (Q-Sys) for accurate scanning of the mirror under test, under impact of its bending mechanics and cooling system. The measured results are compared to the simulated performance of the LTP, and we show the way of the oncoming improvement of the instrument.
The Linac Coherent Light Source (LCLS) of SLAC is upgrading the facility to a more flexible design, permitting both, high energy per pulse mode and High Repetition Rate mode. Two independent “sources” Soft and Hard X-ray will serve five of the existing beamlines and three completely new ones.
We will present here, one of the new beamlines, mainly dedicated to Resonant Inelastic Scattering (RIXS) and Liquid Jet based experiments.
The beamline is designed to deliver the beam to the floor upstairs of the existing experimental area by using a large deflection, grating based monochromator. The monochromator is designed to provide both, very high resolving power (E/ΔE<50,000) and transform limited low-resolution mode. To accommodate those very different operative modes, the footprint of the beam on the gratings is controlled to illuminate the proper amount of lines. An elliptical bendable mirror, in front of the monochromator, will create four different virtual sources, to cover the photon energy range from 250 to 1600 eV in both modes.
After the monochromator, the beamline will serve three experimental stations installed in line. A pair of plan elliptical bendable mirrors, operating in the Kirkpatrick-Baez configuration, will focus the radiation in the proper experimental station. The focal spot size, will be controllable, permitting to adapt it to the need of the experiment. Another major requirement is to preserve the uniformity of the beam, out of focus, with a maximum intensity variation of less than 5%. This implies maintaining the shape error of all the optics to sub-nm levels, even in the presence of heat load. The design principle and performance of the three active mirrors and the impact on the monochromator and spot profile will be presented in details, together with some preliminary tests.
Along with the demanding requirements for the extreme limit pushing LCLS II project, comes the challenge in metrology work for qualifying the optical and mechanical components. Besides qualifying the components against specifications, it is also crucial to study performance, repeatability and stability of the mirror systems designed for meeting the LCLS II conditions. Therefore a dedicated metrology laboratory has been jointly funded by LCLS II project and LCLS facility.
The laboratory, located close to the experimental hall of LCLS, is currently equipped with a 6” Fizaeau interferometer (Zygo DynaFiz) and a Zygo NewView 8300 white light interferometer. A profilometer, hosting a Long Trace Profiler optic head, an autocollimator (Moller Wedel) and a Shack Hartman head (SHArPer, Imagine Optics), is under assembling.
The combination of these instruments will enable us to measure spatial periods from the µm scale up to 1.5 m. Further implementation in progress are the implementation of a stitching method for the 6” interferometer and reduction of environmental noise.
The results obtained from measuring 1-m long flat mirrors, with sub-nm shape errors, produced by Jtec, show a very high sensitivity of the interferometer. These results, as well as the results obtained in testing the bender prototype and some diffraction gratings, will be presented.
The ability to split femtosecond free electron laser pulses and recombine them with a precisely adjustable delay has numerous scientific applications such as X-ray Photon Correlation Spectroscopy and X-ray pump X-ray probe measurements. A wavefront-splitting based hard X-ray split-delay system is currently under development at the Linac Coherent Light Source. The design configuration uses a series of Si(220) crystal reflections in the horizontal scattering geometry. It covers an energy range between 6.5 and 13 keV, a delay range from -30 ps up to 500 ps at 8 keV. The design features two planar air bearing based linear stage delay lines for improved stability and accuracy during the delay adjustments in order to maintain spatial overlap of the two branches during a delay scan. We present the basic design concept, tolerance analysis, and estimated performance of the system.
We present an X-ray mirror bender that includes multiple spring actuators that introduce a controlled deformation of the
mirror substrate capable of correcting residual figure errors on the mirror, below one nanometer. For usual mirror
dimensions, this requires applying correcting forces with resolution and stability in the order of 0.01 N, and a range up to
20 N, depending on the initial figure error of the mirror. To obtain the required stability, the actuators need to
compensate intrinsic mechanical instabilities, such as thermal drifts or the limited repeatability of parts that move during
the adjustment of the figure. The concept we propose uses weak springs that allow reducing all these effects below
noticeable values. Additional considerations on friction and parasitic components of the force are accounted. The system
also includes two independent bending actuators with a larger force range to generate the mean elliptic figure of the
mirror. Metrology tests of the performances of the system show that the correctors are repeatable within 0.01 N, and
reach much higher resolution. A prototype of the bender has been used to correct the figure error of a 500 mm long
mirror below one nanometer (root mean square). The agreement to the predicted figure is better than 0.08 nm rms.
The success of the LCLS led to an interest across a number of disciplines in the scientific community including physics,
chemistry, biology, and material science. Fueled by this success, SLAC National Accelerator Laboratory is developing a
new high repetition rate free electron laser, LCLS-II, a superconducting linear accelerator capable of a repetition rate up
to 1 MHz. Undulators will be optimized for 200 to 1300 eV soft X-rays, and for 1000 to 5000 eV hard X-rays. To
absorb spontaneous radiation, higher harmonic energies and deflect the x-ray beam to various end stations, the transport
and diagnostics system includes grazing incidence plane mirrors on both the soft and Hard X-ray beamline.
To deliver the FEL beam with minimal power loss and wavefront distortion, we need mirrors of height errors below 1nm
rms in operational conditions. We need to mitigate the thermal load effects due to the high repetition rate. The absorbed
thermal profile is highly dependent on the beam divergence, and this is a function of the photon energy. To address this
complexity, we developed a mirror cradle with variable length cooling and first order curve correction. Mirror figure
error is minimized using variable length water-cooling through a gallium-indium eutectic bath. Curve correction is
achieved with an off-axis bender that will be described in details.
We present the design features, mechanical analysis and results from optical and mechanical tests of a prototype
assembly, with particular regards to the figure sensitivity to bender corrections.
We propose a method to determine the required performances of the positioning mechanics of the optical elements of a
beamline. Generally, when designing and specifying a beamline, one assumes that the position and orientations of the
optical elements should be aligned to its ideal position. For this, one would generally require six degrees of freedom per
optical element. However, this number is reduced due to symmetries (e.g. a flat mirror does not care about yaw).
Generally, one ends up by motorizing many axes, with high resolution and a large motion range. On the other hand, the
diagnostics available at a beamline provide much less variables than the available motions. Moreover, the actual
parameters that one wants to optimize are reduced to a very few. These are basically, spot size and size at the sample,
flux, and spectral resolution. The result is that many configurations of the beamline are actually equivalent, and therefore
indistinguishable from the ideal alignment in terms of performance.We propose a method in which the effect of
misalignment of each one of the degrees of freedom of the beamline is scanned by ray tracing. This allows building a
linear system in which one can identify and select the best set of motions to control the relevant parameters of the beam.
Once the model is built it provides the required optical pseudomotors as well as the requirements in alignment and
manufacturing, for all the motions, as well as the range, resolution and repeatability of the motorized axes.
We present the continuous scan operation of the ALBA-NOM as a working mode that allows obtaining low noise in
short time, as well as high accuracy measurements. In the traditional step-scan operation, the position of the probe beam
is kept fixed while many data points of autocollimator are averaged for noise reduction. This operation mode is very
safe, as one has a perfect correspondence between mirror position and measured angle, but it is time inefficient, as it
disregards all the data values acquired during motion, and basically averages data values taken under identical
conditions. On the other hand, continuous scan is less safe in terms of correspondence between mirror position and slope,
especially for NOM systems for which the autocollimator does not accept an electronic trigger. Nevertheless, it is
possible to perform independent acquisitions of the autocollimator and of the linear stage data during a scan, and
synchronize signals a posteriori. This solves the main problem of continuous scan with a NOM. Continuous scan
operation for performing measurements is very efficient for noise reduction per unit time, as it allows integrating every
single data value taken by the autocollimator. In addition, it opens the possibility of introducing pitch variations of the
mirror between scans. This allows obtaining many independent datasets that can be combined using error suppression
techniques to reduce not just noise but systematic errors too. In this paper we report the methods and the main results.
In this work we review the use of spatial light modulators (SLMs) for optical processing applications involving colour management. We include pioneering results in collaboration with H. J. Caulfield, where colour information was introduced onto an optical correlator by means of gratings with different orientation, frequency and amplitude. Nowadays SLMs are used to manage colour in applications that include colour digital holography, multispectral and hyperspectral filtering, polarimetric sensing, or pulse shaping systems. Here we review techniques for the spectral characterization of liquid crystal SLMs and some of the advances in their use for some of the above-mentioned applications.
Many synchrotron experimental techniques require a variable size x-ray photon beam on the sample or on the detector.
The easiest way to achieve this, with the minimum set of optical elements, is to defocus the beam, typically by changing
the bending radius of the focusing mirrors. Nevertheless, to defocus the beam from sample has the problem that the beam
profile is heavily modulated by striations caused by the surface error of the focusing optics. To our knowledge, a
relationship between these modulations of the beam and the surface errors that originates them has not been properly
established. In this work we show that beam modulation of a defocused beam has a nonlinear dependence on the slope
profile of the mirror. From the derived relationships it follows that the relative contributions to beam striations of slope
error lower and higher spatial frequencies vary depending on how far away the measurement plane is from the image
plane. We explore the relationship between the amplitude of the striations and the power spectral density of the slope
errors.
The Alba ray tracing code (ART) is a suite of Matlab functions and tools for the ray tracing simulation of x-ray
beamlines. The code is structured in different layers, which allow its usage as part of optimization routines as well as an
easy control from a graphical user interface. Additional tools for slope error handling and for grating efficiency
calculations are also included. Generic characteristics of ART include the accumulation of rays to improve statistics
without memory limitations, and still providing normalized values of flux and resolution in physically meaningful units.
The use of linear methods to obtain both the error surface and the instrument error from redundant-independent datasets has been proposed to improve the accuracy of angle measuring scanning devices such as the long trace profilometer (LTP) or the nanometer optical measuring machine (NOM). In this work we propose to extend the method to measurements obtained during the calibration of mechanical benders. The proposed method allows determining an error-free measure of the slope error, the curvature and the cubic component of the mirror, as well as the instrument error. The description of the method, simulations and practical works are presented.
Mistral is the soft X-ray full field microscopy beamline at the ALBA light source. The beamline is designed to have
large source acceptance and to provide constant magnification at the exit slit for photon energies between 270 and
2600 eV. The monochromator is a variation of the Petersen plane grating monochromator in which a variable line
spacing grating is used to maintain the beam focused at the exit slit, independently of the fixed focus constant, and to
cancel aberrations. We present the alignment strategy used to compensate errors of the optical elements, and report about
the commissioning results.
We present a new technique for measuring ultraprecise absolute optical surfaces. The technique combines the lateral shearing method but using a Fizeau interferometer. It achieves faster reconstructions than with a deflectometric system and without the influence of the reference surface. The system is limited by the imprecision of the linear stage and those of the estimation of the curvature of the reference surface. Regarding the guidance errors, we propose a new method to estimate pitch and roll based on data redundancy analysis. Numerical simulation results of pitch-and-roll estimations are given for realistic errors. Reconstructions using the sequential lateral shearing are also provided achieving nanometer accuracy.
Synchrotron radiation sources have become brighter in recent years. In order to profit all this brilliance,
optical surfaces of the beamlines must have slope errors below 1-2 microradians RMS. Thus, it is necessary to
have accurate and repeatable measurements of these surfaces (plane, elliptical, toroid, etc.). In this work, a
Fizeau interferometer is used for their characterization. The accuracy of the measurement is limited by quality
of the reference surfaces of the interferometer. Lateral shearing technique is applied in order to remove the
influence of the reference surfaces. This technique requires to use two or more images of the surface displaced
each other. Then, systematic errors of the linear stage (guidance and positioning errors) become the limit for
an accurate characterization. Different algorithms for the estimation and compensation of these systematic
errors have been developed. They are based on the two dimensional redundancy of the data obtained from
multiple measurements. In addition, algorithms to control the alignment of the setup have been developed and
implemented in a stand-alone application. As a result, once errors introduced by the stage are controlled, an
accurate characterization of the optical surfaces for beamlines is obtained. With this extended data analysis,
the accuracy of the mirror characterization can be improved with independence of the quality of the reference
optics of the interferometer.
The performance of synchrotron beamline optics is often limited by the accuracy in the figuring and finishing
of the optical surfaces. In consequence, a very sensitive and accurate characterization of the optics is required
during manufacturing and testing. Such characterization can only be done with instruments like long trace
profilometers or Fizeau interferometers. In the case of the Fizeau interferometer, the accuracy is mainly
limited by the quality of the reference surface. In this work, we propose a new method for improving the
accuracy of the surface reconstruction by using the lateral shearing technique. It consists on measuring the
sample surface several times, applying different displacements. By subtracting these measurements each other,
the error introduced by the reference surface can be removed and the profile of the sample mirror can be
reconstructed. Then, the accuracy of the reconstruction is limited by the imprecisions of the linear stage used
to shift the sample mirror. The positioning error is analyzed regarding the shearing transfer function and
the Natural Extension. Small displacements are more sensitive to the positioning error, not only because the
error is comparatively bigger, but also because the error using Natural Extension is bigger than using large
displacements. Using the proposed technique, a statistical analysis regarding the positioning error has been
performed. Its conclusion is that the accuracy in metrology of x-ray mirrors is improved by at least a factor of
18 compared to that achieved with the Fizeau interferometer and a standard λ/20 reference surface, giving a
reconstruction error lower than 1.8 nm peak to valley.
The unification of the new European studies under the framework of the Bologna process creates a new adaptation within the field of Physics this academic year 08/09 and in the coming years until 2010. An adjustment to the programs is required in order to migrate to the new European Credit Transfer System (ECTS), changing the credit from 10 to 25 hours. This adaptation is mandatory for the new students. However, the current students under the previous program have the opportunity to avoid these changes and to finish the degree with the old curricula. One of the characteristics of the Image Processing Laboratory (IPL) is the feedback between the laboratory researchers and the students. From this mutual collaboration several students have participated in various scientific research studies. In general, when a student is introduced into the research group routine, they found some differences between the degree laboratory courses and the research laboratory dynamics. This paper provides an overview of the experiences acquired and the results obtained by undergraduate students in recent works related to liquid crystal display (LCD) characterization and optimization, LCD uniformity analysis, polarimeter design, LCD temporal fluctuation effects or diffractive optics and surface metrology.
In VanderLugt type correlators, the input scene and the filter could be implemented onto twisted liquid crystal displays (LCD's). The modulator used to display the scene and the elements placed before the filter usually introduce phase aberrations. These aberrations have an important influence in the final correlation plane. We propose a new method to evaluate and correct in situ these aberrations by using the correlator as a point diffraction interferometer. In this work, the wave front phase distribution evaluation is performed by means of the phase shift interferometry (PSI) technique. We present the theory on which the method is based and the experimental results obtained by applying it in a convergent correlator.
Twisted nematic liquid crystal displays (TN-LCD) are commercially available and have found a widespread use for displaying dynamic diffractive elements. Usually these devices are inserted between two polarizers but then a strong amplitude-phase coupling is obtained. In this paper we show that by using elliptically polarized light at the entrance and detecting elliptically polarized light at the output, it is possible to obtain a pure phase-only modulation. The complete device then consists on a polarizer, a waveplate, the TN-LCD, another waveplate and another polarizer. This technique is particularly useful for newer LCDs which are thinner devices and require short wavelengths to achieve a 2π phase modulation depth. If a phase-only diffractive element is displayed by an LCD which does not produce this perfect phase-only modulation, different diffraction orders are generated. We include a model to evaluate the diffraction efficiency, which accounts for a phase modulation depth less than 2π, non-linearities in the phase modulation or a coupled amplitude modulation. We derive the expression to evaluate the amplitude of these diffraction orders which are related with the light efficiency that can be obtained. It is demonstrated that a good efficiency can be obtained even though the maximum phase modulation depth is less than 2π. For instance, this is the situation if a thin display is illuminated with a long wavelength. The diffraction efficiency is higher than 90% when the modulation depth is 1.4π, and higher than 40% (the equivalent for a binary phase element) when the modulation depth is 0.7π.
In this work we review the application of twisted nematic liquid crystal displays (TN-LCD's) for image processing, pattern recognition and diffractive optical elements. For these applications, three kinds of spatial modulations are of interest: phase-only, amplitude-only and combined full amplitude and phase modulation. However TN-LCD's generally provide coupled phase and amplitude modulation. We review how to achieve these three desired operating conditions. We begin with a discussion of different Jones matrix models for TN-LCD displays. We examine optical configurations for achieving amplitude-only modulation and polarization eigenvectors for achieving phase-only modulation. Then we review an extremely successful technique for obtaining combined full amplitude and phase modulation by spatially modulating the maximum phase depth.
In this paper we will revise the application of twisted nematic liquid crystal displays (TN-LCD) as spatial light modulators (SLM) for image processing and diffractive optics. In general two kind of responses are desired for the mentioned applications: amplitude-only and phase-only modulation. In general the users of commercially available LCDs do not know the optical properties of the used material. Thus, a reverse-engineering approach is needed to optimize the LCD response. First, we show a simplified model, that we recently proposed, for the orientation of the LC molecules. The model allows the determination of the physical parameters of the LCD by means of simple intensity measurements. Second, we demonstrate the capability of the model to provide very accurate predictions of the optical transmission. Therefore, we can perform computer searches for the optimum orientation of the added polarizing elements to obtain the required optical transmission. We demonstrate the need to insert wave plates in front and behind the LCD to obtain either amplitude-only or phase-only regimes with the LCD. Finally, we show the application of the optimized LCD to display images and filters in optical image processing, as well as we show the design of diffractive optical elements and apodizers.
A color image is considered as a three-dimensional function in which the third dimension is the color axis. This approach permits the 3D generalization of the correlation between two images and the frequency filter design. In this work we analyze the properties of this 3D Fourier transform. Color pattern recognition is performed by means of a 3D correlation between an input colored image and the pattern to be detected. The spectrum whitening operation is analyzed in terms of the color transformation and some previously proposed element-wise transformations designed to improve the discrimination are revisited in this sense.
In the last years, some optical pattern recognition techniques have been developed based in real time correlators using spatial light modulators (SLM). In this work, the building of a real time convergent optical correlator is presented. In the correlator, both the input scene and the filter are implemented using twisted nematic liquid crystal display panels (LCD) as spatial light modulators. The modulation of this kind of panels is generally coupled phase and amplitude modulation for linearly polarized state. So, elliptically polarized light configurations have been used to optimize the LCD response and to perform either phase only or amplitude only modulation. Linear polarizers and wave plates are combined at the input and the output sides of the LCD to obtain these configurations. The input scene is represented in either an amplitude only or in a phase only SLM. The filter has been represented in a phase only SLM. Some experimental results obtained with the built correlator are shown.
Many applications require a complex processing, using for it a bank of filters. Different architectures have been proposed of optical processors to perform a parallel filtering. We prose a new multichannel architecture based in the translation Fourier Transform properties. These properties allowed us to design multichannels phase filters. The architecture does not need the introduction of any additional modification in the optical processor. We developed an application for texture classification in real time. We obtain excellent results in the texture classification process, 99 percent of images have been correctly classified.
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