The detection performance of an IR camera was analyzed using GRD analysis and NVTherm to detect a target size of 3m × 6m. The optical system design specifications were set with a F-number of 1.6, focal length range of 76.2mm to 24.456mm, and field of view of 9.1° × 6.1° - 29.9°× 22.0°, using a method to convert recognition range performance into GRD. We measured the image resolution performance of the camera produced based on the analysis results, in a laboratory environment. We installed a 4-bar target (I') with a spatial frequency corresponding to GRD (I) m at target distance A km on an optical collimator and acquired a photographic imagery of bar-target by setting the temperature difference corresponding to the target distance A km for distance simulation. The GRD resolution was defined as the resolution for which the number of clearly resolved images among the 50 acquired images was 80 % or higher (40 images or more). The measurement results confirmed that the GRD target corresponding to A km was well resolved. The detection range performance derived based on the GRD analysis was experimentally well demonstrated.
Each MWIR and LWIR detectror, which is widely used in various civil and military including chemical identification, atmospheric monitoring, guided weapon and surveillance reconnaissance systems, is advantageous for detecting hot and cool targets, respectively. Dual-band or multi-band detector that is able to detect more than two bands with only single detector has excellent recognition and identification capablities. Therefore, various groups have studied dual-band or multi-band detector since 1998. In this work, a 20 μm 640×512 dual-band midwave and longwave infrared detector with nBn structure was studied. A nBn detector is not only effective in reducing dark current, but it is relatively simple to implement a dual-band detector by growing MWIR and LWIR absorber layers on both sides of a barrier layer. The dual-band detector acquires each MWIR and LWIR bands by selecting the applied bias direction. Consequently, the 20 μm 640×512 dual-band MWIR/LWIR FPA hybridized to read-out integrated circuit (ROIC) exhibited that an average noise equivalent temperature difference (NETD) and operability of both MWIR and LWIR modes were less than 25 mK and more than 99.5 %, respectively.
Quantum efficiency (QE) is a important parameter of infrared detector. InAs/GaSb T2SL LWIR detector has a low QE due to a small absorption coefficient compared to MCT detector. The QE can be generally increased by thickening the absorber layer but a thick absorber layer increases dark current. In this work, the QE of the InAs/GaSb T2SL LWIR photodetector was improved by Fabry-Perot resonance phenomenon. Resonance cavity is formed between front side metal and backside semiconductor-air interface mirror. At a specific wavelength, the QE is periodically increased by the resonance cavity. To broaden the resonant wavelength band, a grid pattern was formed on the backside of the detector. Consequently, the average QE of T2SL LWIR detector was improved up to ~33 % in the entire 7-9 m wavelength.
The deep mesa process for pixel isolation with ICP-RIE (Inductively Coupled Plasma – Reactive Ion Etching) was studied to develop InAs/GaSb type-Ⅱ superlattice (T2SL) LWIR photodetector with nBn structure. To reduce the lateral diffusion current component of the dark current components, it is essential to accomplish a proper deep dry etching process that can completely isolate absorption layer. In this work, ICP-RIE dry etching was studied to implement the smooth, vertical and isolated pixels. By increasing substrate temperature and adjusting the ratio of Ar in BCl3/Ar gas, it was found that the etch rate was largely increased and mesa shpae has become perpendicular and smooth. It was also found that dark current density was increased as the surface roughness increased. For the best sufrgace roughness, the dark current density of 15 μm pitch device fabricated exhibited 4.92x10-6 A/cm2 at and applied bias of -0.1 V and a temperature of 80 K.
We report our recent work on the fabrication of type-II superlattice (T2SL) LWIR nBn photodetectors. It is well known that the dangling bonds or the oxidized element on the etched mesa sidewall increase a dark current. Therefore, the passivation and treatment process for the mesa surface is the key for detector performance. In this work, we present an in-situ surface plasma treatment after the dry-etch process for the pixel isolation. To investigate the effects of the plasma treatment for the various gases (CHF3, H2, and H2/Ar), the optical and electrical analysis were performed. The results show that H2/Ar plasma treatment was effective for removing Sb-oxides at dry-etched surface. The fabricated devices which was measured at -0.1 V and 80 K shows the dark current density of -3.9 x 10-6 A/cm-2 .
High operating temperature(HOT) is the key for low size, weight and power(SWaP) detector development and SWaP detector is the key for modern weapon system such as unmanned aerial vehicle(UAV) and man portable system. The low dark current that determines the operating temperature can be achieved by adopting InAs/InAsSb type-II superlattice(T2SL) absorber and nBn structure. In this work, HOT mid-wavelength infrared(MWIR) detector with InAs/InAsSb T2SL absorber and AlAsSb barrier was developed. The AlAsSb barrier shows excellent lattice match with GaSb substrate. Only the dry etch for pixel reticulation was applied to fabricate the device. At 80 K, dark current density is 2e-9 A/cm2 at the bias -0.2 V and, at 130 K, 2e-7 A/cm2 at the bias -0.1 V. The quantum efficiency was measured for both front side illumination and back side illumination. The back side illumination offers higher quantum efficiency than the front side illumination. The average quantum efficiency is about 50 % for front side illumination with 3 μm absorber. The 640 x 512 VGA format focal plane array(FPA) with 15 μm pitch was fabricated to study the temperature dependency of electro-optical characteristics. It was found that mean noise equivalent temperature difference(NETD) below 150 K is 15 mK, which is limited by the well capacitance. As the temperature increases NETD increases proportional to the dark current.
We present a new ray tracing simulation of aero-optical effect through anisotropic inhomogeneous media as supersonic
flow field surrounds a projectile. The new method uses multiple gradient-index (GRIN) layers for construction of the
anisotropic inhomogeneous media and ray tracing simulation. The cone-shaped projectile studied has 19° semi-vertical
angle; a sapphire window is parallel to the cone angle; and an optical system of the projectile was assumed via paraxial
optics and infrared image detector. The condition for the steady-state solver conducted through computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) included Mach numbers 4 and 6 in speed, 25 km altitude, and 0° angle of attack (AoA). The grid
refractive index of the flow field via CFD analysis and Gladstone-Dale relation was discretized into equally spaced
layers which are parallel with the projectile’s window. Each layer was modeled as a form of 2D polynomial by fitting the
refractive index distribution. The light source of ray set generated 3,228 rays for varying line of sight (LOS) from 10° to
40°. Ray tracing simulation adopted the Snell’s law in 3D to compute the paths of skew rays in the GRIN layers. The
results show that optical path difference (OPD) and boresight error (BSE) decreases exponentially as LOS increases. The
variation of refractive index decreases, as the speed of flow field increases the OPD and its rate of decay at Mach number
6 in speed has somewhat larger value than at Mach number 4 in speed. Compared with the ray equation method, at Mach
number 4 and 10° LOS, the new method shows good agreement, generated 0.33% of relative root-mean-square (RMS)
OPD difference and 0.22% of relative BSE difference. Moreover, the simulation time of the new method was more than
20,000 times faster than the conventional ray equation method. The technical detail of the new method and simulation is
presented with results and implication.
This paper reports the development of mid-wave 320x256 HgCdTe IRFPA with 30μm pixel pitch since 2002 in Korea.
All key technologies such as HgCdTe photodiode array fabrication process, the design of silicon readout integrated
circuit and hybridization process between HgCdTe photodiode array and ROIC including underfill encapsulation process
are studied and realized. The fabricated IRFPA shows good electro-optical performances such as operability over 99%,
NETD of ~ 17mK and there is no degradation in the operability during 500 thermal cycles.
CdTe films have been electrodeposited on HgCdTe from ethylene glycol based electrolyte containing 50 mM CdSO4, 10 mM K2TeO3 and 0.1 M HClO4. Deposition potential range with respect to a saturated calomel reference electrode was determined through cyclic voltammetry technique. RBS data showed that films deposited at potential range between -0.4 to -0.5 V have nearly stoichiometric Cd/Te atomic ratio. At the same time, highly oriented and smoother films were obtained at potential range were stoichiometric CdTe films were electrodeposited through nitrogen bubbling process. By adopting constant potential deposition technique could be obtained between electrodeposited CdTe and HgCdTe substrate showing high frequency capacitance-voltage (C-V) characteristics. Electrodeposited CdTe film can be used as a passivant for LWIR HgCdTe photodiodes.
Several junction formation methods are known to make HgCdTe photovoltaic devices. Ion implantation is the most popular process, but it needs additional thermal annealing process. In-situ junction formation by several epitaxy techniques is the advanced process, but is still hard to fabricate. In this paper, for the first time, hydrogenation technique for p-to-n type conversion in HgCdTe has been studied to fabricate HgCdTe photovoltaic infrared detector. H2 plasma generated in an inductively coupled plasma (ICP) system was used to hydrogenate p-type HgCdTe wafer. Using the ICP system, damages given to the HgCdTe wafer could be minimized. Junction depth measured by differential Hall measurement was able to be adjusted from 2μm to 20μm. Hydrogen atom profile was measured by secondary ion mass spectroscopy (SIMS) and doping profile was measured by differential Hall measurement. Similar depth profile was found between the hydrogen profile and doping profile. It suggests the diffused hydrogen atom is the source of the type conversion. Several experiments were also taken with vacancy-doped and gold-doped p-type HgCdTe wafers. Type conversion was observed only in vacancy doped HgCdTe wafer, not in gold-doped HgCdTe wafer. This means that junction formation by hydrogenation is not due to the damage by the hydrogen plasma, but due to the diffusion of the hydrogen atoms. By applying the hydrogenation process to vacancy-doped wafers, LWIR diodes were successfully fabricated. Current-voltage (I-V) characteristics of hydrogenated Hg0.79Cd0.21Te diodes were also measured. Average RoA products of these diodes were about 50 Ω cm2. Device uniformity and stability were also tested. The characteristics of the hydrogenated devices did not changed under the baking condition of 80°C over 10 days.
An experimental investigation was performed to study the heat transfer of flat micro heat pipe (FMHP) arrays with 38 triangular microgrooves. A heat pipe is an effective heat transport device that uses the latent heat of vaporization and operates without external power and achieves very high thermal conductance by means of two-phase fluid flow with capillary circulation. The overall size of the FMHP is 24 mm X 16 mm X 1.25 mm. The FMHP that can be put underneath microelectronic die and integrated into the electronic package of microelectronic device has been fabricated and characterized. Water was used as a working liquid. The fabrication and heat transfer details along with steady state horizontal orientation performance test results are presented. The experimental results show the temperature decrease of 12.1 degrees Celsius at the evaporator section for the input power of 5.9 W and the improvement of 28% in effective thermal conductivity.
In this paper, two different surface treatments for bulk HgCdTe are compared in the point of surface recombination velocity and diode dynamic resistance-voltage characteristics. One surface treatment, named as standard treatment, is only Br-MeOH etching and the other, named as nitric acid (HNO3) treatment, is composed of chemical oxidation with nitric acid after Br-MeOH etching and the removal of the oxide with ammonium hydroxide. After such surface treatments, gate- controlled diodes were fabricated and surface recombination velocity were measured to be 170 cm/s and 70 cm/s for the standard treatment and nitric acid treatment, respectively. And, the nitric acid treatment diode satisfied BLIP dynamic resistance characteristics regardless of the variation of the gate voltage. Moreover, from the measurement of capacitance- voltage characteristics, it was found that nitric acid treatment reduced the hysteresis width in the C-V curves of ZnS/HgCdTe MIS capacitor by one tenth compared to standard treatment. It is thought that the nitric acid treatment reduces surface-related defect and charge.
A new reflow method for indium bump of hybridized HgCdTe IRFPA is proposed using H2 plasma. Twenty micrometer height indium bump is easily achieved with this method. In the new method, H2 plasma makes the indium bump surface clean with removing the oxidized indium by H radical chemical reaction. Simultaneously, H2 plasma increases the temperature of indium bump above 160 degrees Celsius. This sphere shaped bump is easily deformed plastically with relatively small force. Force of 2 g/bump changes the 20 micrometer height bump to 10 micrometer. The flip-chip bonding technique using the new reflow method is characterized with shear strain strength measurement. It is found that bonding reliability can be improved owing to increased height and smooth surface.
Impact experiments have been performed to investigate the fracture phenomena in two different transparent targets: glass and PMMA. Early states after intense impulsive loading were observed by means of IMACON high speed camera and manganine pressure gage. The wave propagation and crack growth into targets were analyzed as a function of time. Microcracks are generated always behind the shock wave front. In glass, the release waves reflected from the free surfaces of target sides may cause to generate secondary cracks in front of the main fracture surface. The wave interaction due to different impedance on the target boundaries affects wave propagation and crack growth.
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