Photoplethysmography (PPG) is a non-invasive optical technique used to extract physiological information by means of light interaction with the skin. PPG is widely used in pulse oximeters, and the evolution of wearable technologies is further enlarging its applications. A great variety of influencing factors impact the PPG waveform, making the correct feature extraction difficult and, therefore, limiting the accuracy of many PPG applications. The device hardware and software are among these influencing factors. This study evaluates the impact on the PPG signal quality of the LED viewing angle (luminous aperture) and the protective glass material, thickness, and anti-reflective coating, both important building blocks of a PPG sensor. Results suggest that the larger the viewing angle, the smaller the detected signal amplitude. The protective glass properties on the contrary does not seem to impact the detected signal amplitudes.
Anomalistic behavior in diffraction responses of grating can be easily detected and can indirectly provide information
about the grating parameters such as the grating period, height, duty-cycle and profile. More precisely, the absorption
resonance (Wood's anomaly) which arises from the excitation of a surface plasmon polariton (SPP) in reflective
sub-wavelength diffraction gratings are of interest as well as Rayleigh's anomaly which takes the form of a discontinuity
in the diffraction response and which is the consequence of the excitation of a new propagating mode. In this paper we
describe how these anomalies can be used as a non-destructive metrology tool to estimate the grating parameters by an
IR spectral scatterometry measurement. We briefly describe the theoretical conditions for which SPP are excited. We
investigate the wavelength sensitivity of Wood's anomaly in the zeroth order diffraction response to individual grating
parameter variations at CO2 laser wavelengths. A numerical electromagnetic grating solver software package "Gsolver"
was used for the theoretical modeling. We show that this non-destructive IR spectral scatterometry measurement based
on feature extraction allows us to measure grating parameter variations with nanometer resolution. The measurement
time needed to scan a 4" wafer has been shown to be of the order of a few minutes. This is much faster as compared to
traditional techniques as (deconstructive) SEM inspection or white light interferometry. Furthermore, the extension of
this technique to larger wafers does not impose any difficulties.
In this paper, we investigate a novel fast and reliable method to check the bonding quality of silicon wafers. It
is based on illuminating the wafers with a high frequency waves (110 - 170 GHz) using quasi-optical technique.
The reflected energy is used to evaluate the bonding strength. The reported experimental study is compared
with the Infrared images.
Single split-ring resonators has a great interest due to their refractive index facility. In this paper we provide a
comprehensive study, supported with experimental data, that addresses the effect of the type of the substrate and
the geometric parameters on the resonant frequency and the quality of the design. The measurements are carried
out using quasi-optical technique in mm-wave frequency range. We also provide recommendations concerning
the main factors that should be considered in designing split open ring resonators at mm-wave frequency range.
This work presents a sensitivity analysis for the resonance frequency and bandwidth of dielectric supported
Split Ring Resonator (SRR) metmaterial in THz frequency. The different designed parameters have been considered and
their parametric sensitivities on resonance frequency and on bandwidth have been analyzed. The finite integral technique
is used to simulate the structure and the numerical techniques are used to obtain the resonance frequency and bandwidth
sensitivities as a function of the designed parameters. The analysis for sensitivity of the scattering parameters of
metamaterial is especially very important in THz frequency range. The resonance frequency and the bandwidth are the
main characteristics of a resonator Frequency Selective Surface (FSS). The development of FSS in mm-wave frequency
range can be simplified by the knowledge of the sensitivity of their main characteristics as a function of the considered
physical parameters. The FSS structure considered in this section is the square split ring resonator with copper strip lines
backed by Roger 4003 C dielectric substrate. The FSS structure is simulated by using CST Microwave Studio transient
solver. The resonance frequency and the bandwidth sensitivities as function structural parameters of FSS are obtained by
using the simulation data. In this analysis, normal incident TE modes are considered.
We present a new modulation concept for medium infrared (8 - 12 μm) wavelengths. The operation principle of the
presented modulator is based on evanescent wave absorption by means of a bulk, single or multiple quantum well
structure. A sub-wavelength grating ensures efficient coupling of the optical field to the absorption medium. Modulation
is then achieved by depletion of this absorption medium. We present an analysis of concept parameters and point out
their respective advantages and disadvantages with respect to the modulation performance. In this context, we
investigated the impact of different absorption media as bulk, single and multiple quantum well structures and found that
single quantum well structures are best suited for modulation purposes. Simulations pointed out that an absolute
modulation depth of the order of 60% can be achieved. We also investigated the impact of the diffraction order on the
modulation performance. Furthermore, some preliminary experimental results on this modulation concept are presented
and compared with simulations.
Laser induced temperature distributions inside doped semiconductor materials are used to derive laser beam profiles by
means of the thermo-electric Seebeck effect. Thermal diffusion will lead to a discrepancy between the optical intensity
profile of the laser beam and the measured temperature distribution inside the semiconductor. An advanced numerical
4D finite element model describing the laser induced spatial temperature distribution in function of time in a layered
GaAs based structure was developed in Comsol Multiphysics. Non-linearities as the temperature dependence of the
absorption coefficient, the thermal conductivity and the Seebeck coefficient were taken into account. This model was
used to investigate the optical chopper frequency dependence on the spatial thermal cross-talk level and the responsivity
near the illuminated surface of the detector structure. It was shown that the frequency dependent cross-talk level can be
reduced significantly by applying short chopping periods due to the dependence of the thermal diffusion length on the
frequency. The thermal cross-talk is reduced to -21 dB and -38.6 dB for the first and second neighboring pixel
respectively for a lock-in frequency of 140 Hz. Experimental results of the spatial thermal cross-talk level and the
responsivity were compared with simulations and satisfactory agreements between both were achieved. High power CO2
laser profile measurements obtained with our thermo-electric detector and a commercially available Primes detector were
compared.
This paper presents the design, construction and testing of grounded Frequency Selective Surface (FSS) array as
millimeter wave beam splitter. The phase dependence on slot length of grounded FSS demonstrates that the reflection
phase of coherent mm-wave can be altered by using FSS array with different slot lengths. A beam splitter was designed
with slot FSS array where the slot length is the main design parameter used to optimize the phase properties of the array.
We simulated the FSSs with commercial CST Microwave studio software, fabricated them with etching technique and
characterized with a free space MVNA and BWO with motorized detector setup.
Active millimeter wave imaging technology is emerging, which has the potential to yield much more information when
one has control over the illumination parameters. Image processing of this kind of images is almost inexistent in
literature. In this paper, we propose multidimensional illumination techniques to improve the mm-wave image quality.
Multi-angle, multi-frequency, and cross-polarization illuminations were implemented to obtain multidimensional images.
Principle Component Analysis (PCA) and clustering analysis were applied to process the results.
Free-space active W-band millimeter-wave imaging (75-110 GHz) makes possible imaging of phenomena,
inaccessible to visible and infrared light. W-band supports the imaging of concealed objects, providing both
enough spatial resolution and good penetration. An advantage of mm-wave radiation over X-ray is that it is
non-ionizing, and there are no known hazards or risks to human health. When imaging an object with an mmwave
coherent beam, this is accompanied with speckle phenomenon. Because mm-wave wavelength is
closer to the surface roughness and to the object dimension as by optical imaging, spatial distribution of
speckle gives us more information than the image itself.
We will use a speckle contrast as a measure of the speckle. Speckle contrast contains useful information
when it differs from unity, and has been utilized here to reveal surface roughness of concealed objects. The
speckle contrast starts to be reduced from unity when an incoherent part compensates coherent light. A
sequence of mm-wave images was acquired with a fixed angle interval. The speckle contrast of each pixel in
the image was calculated and a new image was formed: a spatial speckle contrast image. It revealed areas,
covered with interference. Comparing the two images together makes all features of the hidden object visible.
We also present results, which illustrate mechanical speckle contrast reduction in full W-band by means of
phase diversity Hadamard solution. Hadamard principle has been proven by experimental conversion of the
coherent sum of the electrical millimeter wave amplitudes into an incoherent sum of intensities. The measured
data give results on speckle contrast reduction that match accurately the theoretical statistical estimations.
Industrial and medical imaging of concealed objects could benefit both from speckle contrast images and Hadamard speckle reduction.
Millimeter waves are able to penetrate materials that are usually opaque to both visible and infrared radiation. We used this advantage to design a free-space active millimeter-wave imaging set up for security applications. Because all existing mm-wave sources are coherent - speckle is one of the ultimate limiting factors of the imaging techniques. This problem is of special importance for mm-wave imaging, because surface roughness is closer to the object dimension as in optical imaging. The reduction of speckle is highly desirable and we propose here a Hadamard matrix solution, which is one of the most efficient ways to reduce speckle noise. By illuminating the object with a series of orthogonal phase patterns corresponding to permutations of Hadamard matrices, one can convert the sum of electrical fields (coherent) in the image pixel into a sum of intensities (non-coherent). We report a 50% speckle reduction. The effect of speckle reduction was measured using both a vector network analyzer and a W-band free-space scalar calibrated measurement setup. We processed 2 different Hadamard diffusers and present here measurement data discussing speckle contrast as a function of frequency.
The theoretical background of Seebeck infrared detectors based on nonlinear free carrier absorption in doped
semiconductors has been presented. The 3D-distribution of the electron and lattice temperatures created by the
absorption of an optical beam with a cylindrical symmetry in layered structures was developed. Five different operation
regimes of the detector are presented, showing that all beams form CW down to picoseconds can be detected. We will
discuss how one can control the detectable power and intensity levels and the cross-talk in multi-pixel arrays by means
of the doping concentration, geometry of the absorption region and pixellation format, the positioning of a heat sink, and
micro-machining techniques. Experimental backing for the model will be given for the pulsed regime and the CW
regime. We also demonstrate operation of the detector in the +1 kW power level.
THz technology makes possible imaging of phenomena, inaccessible to both visible and infrared radiation, but the
imaging is still in its early stages of development. This paper draws attention to the aspects of speckle reduction to
improve the image quality. Because all existing THz sources are coherent - speckle is an ultimate limiting factor of the
free-space imaging techniques. Speckle arises when coherent light scattered from a rough surface is detected by an
intensity detector with a finite aperture, hiding the image information. This problem is of special importance for THz
imaging, because surface roughness is closer to the object dimension as in optical imaging. The reduction of speckle is
highly desirable and we propose here a Hadamard matrix solution. Hadamard diffuser for mm-wave frequency range
have been designed, built and tested. We report 50% speckle reduction measurements using a free-space vector network
analyzer over the full W-band (75-110 GHz). The advantage of the mm-wave Hadamard technology over optical: the
diffuser doesn't have to be moved (vibrated) any more to accomplish the technology of speckle reduction. Temporal
optical effect is substituted here by spatial quasi-optical: Hadamard coding in each scan pixel. Second method delivers
realistic system parameters for the speckle reduction with polychromatic light for aviation security.
In this paper a simplified "1.5D" modeling approach is presented which can be used to characterize and optimize an
entire active millimeter wave imaging system for concealed weapon detection. The method uses Huygens' Principle to
compute one field component on selected planes of the imaging set-up. The accuracy of the method is evaluated by
comparing it to a rigorous 2D method of moments approach. The model includes the effects of lenses, diffusers, mirrors,
object and any other component present in the system. The approach allows fast determination of the influence of each
of the system components on the image projected onto the sensor, including effects such e.g. speckle. Also, the
effectivity of different speckle reduction techniques, e.g. using a Hadamard diffuser or a multifrequency approach are
evaluated in this paper.
Lumped circuit and 3D-electromagnetic models are presented for a photo-induced plasma that induces local changes in the dielectric properties of a coplanar waveguide transmission line to switch millimeter waves, propagating along transmission lines on BCB coated high resistive silicon substrates. Measurements up to 110 GHz are compared with the various developed models. The insertion loss of these transmission lines was only 1 dB/mm at 100 GHz. The modulation of S21 was about 40 dB at 110 GHz for an optical power of 60 mW focused on one slot between signal and ground. S11 could only be fitted with a lumped circuit model when introducing a frequency dependent impedance was introduced.
Only recently a rigid quantum-mechanical modeling of free- electron induced optical nonlinearities in highly doped n- GaAs has been elaborated. The total theory takes into account non-parabolicity, hot phonons, effective mass modulation due to (Gamma) -L intervalley transfers, scattering due to equivalent intervalley transfers inside the ellipsoidal L-valleys, nonlinear screening, etc. It was shown that this hot free electron nonlinearity is strongest near the plasma resonance and significantly depends on the deformation potential field (Lambda) LL describing transitions of L-valley electrons between equivalent L- minima. For the experiments a very sensitive multi-layer leaky waveguide structure for TM polarized waves was designed and grown by MBE. Measurements were performed with 100 ns duration CO2 laser pulses. For a doping concentration no of 7.6 X 1018cm-3 a nonlinear refractive index value n2 equals (1.0 + 0.12)X10-6 cm2W-1 at (lambda) equals 10.6 micrometers was obtained, which was based on an experimentally derived (Lambda) LL equals (1.0 +/- 0.2) X 109 eVcm-1. With intensities of only several MWcm-2 more than 50% of the electrons cold be transferred to the L-valleys, leading to impressive absorption increases of more than 50%. With respect to bulk samples the nonlinearity could be more than 20 times increased. In combination with an estimated relaxation time of 6 - 7 ps, this nonlinearity exceeds most other results at room temperature for (lambda) equals 10.6micrometers .
Two variants of cascade acousto-optic diffraction for the shifting the frequency of an optical beam in considerable values are described and investigated. Methods are based on the peculiarities of the anisotropic diffraction in anisotropy media and allow the points of diffraction to separate. The methods are confirmed experimentally with using of TeO2 and LiNbO3 mono crystals. A number of applications for the optical processing and pulse processing are proposed. The wavelength-division-multiplexing and the optical image compressing on the basis of the proposed diffraction are discussed.
Diffraction gratings are proposed as an alternative technique to couple a laser diode pump beam into the YAG crystal of a solid-state laser. These binary diffraction gratings are on the long axis of the crystal and are etched in high refractive index coating material. The paper reveals the set of grating parameters and tolerances for transforming vertically incident light into horizontally propagating light inside the crystal with theoretical efficiencies of more than 90%. Under optimal conditions the diffraction grating behaves like an excellent leaky waveguide structure. Theoretical comparisons are made between the efficiencies of gratings directly etched into the laser crystal and gratings etched in to a high index coating material. The resulting zig-zag pumped laser cavity is uniformly excited in order to minimize thermal loads and lensing effects. The maskless binary sub-micron pattern transfer is realized by combining interferometry and lithography.
In this work we investigate the interaction between rectangular-grooved transmission gratings and a resonant plasma layer at IR wavelengths. The gratings are designed to convert quasi-vertically incident light into quasi- horizontally propagating light in a high refractive index GaAs substrate with efficiencies of almost 90 percent in the first diffraction order. This can only be achieved by etching highly asymmetric '(lambda) /4' or '(lambda) ' gratings in a high refractive index material evaporated on the GaAs substrate. The resonant plasma layer (RPL) consists of a very thin highly doped n-GaAs layer whose plasma frequency is almost equal to the frequency of the incident light. Under these conditions Drude's formula shows that the refractive index almost vanishes due to plasma oscillations. The interaction between the diffraction modes and the RPL are investigated and optimized on the base of a rigorous coupled-wave analysis. This analysis reveals to which extent the RPL can influence the distribution of light between the zero and first diffraction orders. In the optimum position of the RPL, the first order diffraction efficiency changes from 90 percent down to 25 percent for a RPL thickness change of 40nm.
In this paper a rigorous quantum mechanical multi-valley model is developed to assess the optical equivalent of the electrical Gunn effect: a laser beam pumps free electrons from the central conduction band valley of n-doped bulk GaAs towards its satellite values. The computational complexities involve a central fully nonparabolic degenerated (Gamma) - valley, an anisotropic L-valley of arbitrary degeneracy, impurity assisted, thermal and hot polar optical phonon assisted intravalley absorption mechanisms, and intervalley phonon assisted equivalent and nonequivalent intervalley absorption mechanisms. The influences of the doping concentrations, electron temperature, optical power density and the equivalent LL-intervalley deformation potential (IDP) on the magnitude and relaxation time of the optical Gunn effect are discussed and compared with experimental results. We found that the optically induced nonlinear absorption and intervalley transfer strongly depend on the equivalent LL-IDP. The large scattering on the available data for LL-IDP leads to large variations in the theoretical estimations. Under optical plasma resonance conditions we find an energy relaxation time in the L-valley of about 0.3 to 2.2 ps, a nonlinear refractive index n2 of about 2.7 to 3.75 X 10-81 cm2/W and e.g. a 10 percent electron transfer of about 1.8 to 3.2 MWcm-2.
Bragg acousto-optic interaction in isotropy media is considered. The basic idea of this diffraction is grounded on the splitting the incident two-color light into two separate beams due to Snell's law and the fitting the Bragg synchronism for every beam and a single acoustic wave. Two variants of such diffraction are possible: diffracted beams propagate at one side respect to the incident beam, and they propagate at opposite sides respect to incident one. We have shown that the first variant is preferable for applications because of better fulfilling of Bragg diffraction conditions.
The optical grating has been the subject of extensive, sustained research for many years. Field of their application include integrated optics, quantum electronic, holography, and spectroscopy. Grating functions include laser-beam feedback, distributed Bragg reflection, holographic beam combining, wavelength multiplexing, wavelength de-multiplexing, and others. Another interesting object of modern physical research is a layer of a resonant plasma (LRP) in which if the charge equilibrium of this system is distributed, the electron gas performs density oscillations, the so-called plasma oscillations and the complex refractive index of which is described by Dride's formula. It is the purpose of this work to combine this two interesting physical objects and investigate the process of the light diffraction by dielectric grating which enclose LRP. We researched Ge-grating on GaAs-substrate under the service of conversion almost vertically incident light into quasi-horizontally propagating light inside the substrate. It is common knowledge that process of conversion almost vertically incident light into quasi-horizontally propagating light is very interesting from the practical standpoint for many cases for example for introduction of light into different optical structure. In our investigation LRP was placed both in the Ge-grating region and in the region of GaAs-substrate.
In this paper we report on the development program of an original intracavity Q-switch for CO2 lasers, called Integrated Mirror Optical Switch (IMOS). The IMOS is based on the optical plasma resonance effect in a GaAs- semiconductor when the refractive index of a tens of nm's thin MBE grown n-GaAs (5-8X1018cm-3) layer is modulated by electronically controlling the electron density in the thin n-GaAs layer. A heterostructure diode is conceived to keep the power dissipation low. 15 to 30% modulation depth can be achieved for a depletion voltage of 15 V at 1 W power dissipation. Switching frequencies of more than 1 MHz were measured. These driving characteristics are very promising to turn a CO2 laser into an easily computer controlled and flexible-machining tool. In order to achieve this, the structure of the Q-switch needs to be adapted for intracavity usage. Q-switches operating in reflection and transmission are compared and discussed. Highly efficient coupling mechanisms are suggested. Special attention will be paid to the design of diffraction gratings.
The theory of Bragg acoustooptic interaction of multi- component optical radiation with a single acoustic wave is developed. The multi-component radiation is assumed to be a multi frequency beam with two possible polarizations of each component. It is shown that the deciding factor for such interaction is to establish the phase synchronism conditions between every component of the optical radiation and the acoustic wave. This diffraction can be realized in anisotropic media only. These ideas are experimentally confirmed by using a two-color optical radiation diffracted on a single acoustic wave propagating in TeO2 mono crystal. Two diffraction regimes of six-component Ar-laser radiation are proposed and investigated. A total diffraction efficiency up to 90% is obtained.
A hot free-carrier absorption in nonparabolic conduction bands is rigorously modeled on the base of Bloch waves. Computations are performed for GaAs, InAs and InSb. Other more relaxed (non)parabolic models can deviate from this up to 100%.
The optical non-linearity based on the non-parabolicity and the intervalley transfer in highly doped n-GaAs has been proposed. A large fraction of the light mass central valley population can be effectively transferred to the heavy mass satellite valleys by optically heating the free carriers with CO2 laser light, leading to a non-linear refractive index n2 of the order of 10-8 cm2/W. Integrating such non-linear layers in a suitable interferometer drastically decreases the non-linear threshold value. Together with the intrinsically small intravalley and intervalley relaxation times (picosecond time scale), this optical heating effect can be used as a versatile tool for improving our understanding of carrier- lattice interactions and hot electron effects in highly doped semiconductors as well as an optical spectroscopic probe for investigating other ultrafast physical, chemical, or biological processes. By introducing feed-back mechanisms, all-optical clocks and delay lines could be conceived with response times of the order of a few ps.
Environmental sensing and atmospheric monitoring are two of the main areas where LIDAR can be
used to advance our understanding of global climate changes and the effects of industrial pollution.
The spectrum from the UV to the far-IR are used to sense a variety of atoms and molecules. However
most of the pollutants are hydrocarbons that have their fingerprint in the region of 8 to 12 rim. This
wavelength region can be partially covered by C02 lasers. Besides, their wavelength can be extended
by harmonic generation to cover the 4.6 to 5.4tm range1. Other C02 laser technology applications
are wind-measurements and combustion dynamics . The required short pulses can be generated with
intracavity and extra-cavity modulators. An attractive approach to achieving a short pulse tunable
mid-IR light source utilizes a low power tunable CW laser combined with an external widebandwidth
modulator. This paper describes the underlying physical principles of a high speed C02
modulator based on the plasma effect and the design towards low electrical power dissipation.
A waveguide modulator for far-infrared light, based on the plasma resonance properties of a high density, thin electron sheet in semiconductors, is proposed. Parallel-coupled (uncoupled) waveguides can be uncoupled (coupled) by the presence of the electron gas.
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