This paper presents an effort that is aimed at addressing two challenges in the monitoring of some bridges
and roads: poor wireless signal transmission and low real-world survivability of wireless sensors. A product is
proposed; a prototype is designed and made to protect some off-the-shelf wireless sensors and improve their
performance. The design is based on numerical simulations of the electromagnetic field including using finitedifference
time-domain method. To protect the wireless sensors and all other components, basic structural
analysis is exercised to obtain an enclosure design that tends to optimize the load-carrying capacity given the
design constraints. All materials used for the enclosure have low electrical conductivities limiting or nullifying
their negative imprint on wireless communication. Off-the-shelf components are utilized as often as possible to
minimize the overall cost and expedite the manufacturing process. The problem encountered in the real-world
testing of the design is presented, analyzed and solved.
KEYWORDS: Neural networks, Sensors, Sensor networks, Telecommunications, Data processing, Structural health monitoring, Evolutionary algorithms, Wireless communications, Systems modeling, Complex systems
Wireless sensing technologies have recently emerged as an inexpensive and robust method of data collection in a variety
of structural monitoring applications. In comparison with cabled monitoring systems, wireless systems offer low-cost
and low-power communication between a network of sensing devices. Wireless sensing networks possess embedded
data processing capabilities which allow for data processing directly at the sensor, thereby eliminating the need for the
transmission of raw data. In this study, the Volterra/Weiner neural network (VWNN), a powerful modeling tool for nonlinear
hysteretic behavior, is decentralized for embedment in a network of wireless sensors so as to take advantage of
each sensor's processing capabilities. The VWNN was chosen for modeling nonlinear dynamic systems because its
architecture is computationally efficient and allows computational tasks to be decomposed for parallel execution. In the
algorithm, each sensor collects it own data and performs a series of calculations. It then shares its resulting calculations
with every other sensor in the network, while the other sensors are simultaneously exchanging their information.
Because resource conservation is important in embedded sensor design, the data is pruned wherever possible to eliminate
excessive communication between sensors. Once a sensor has its required data, it continues its calculations and computes
a prediction of the system acceleration. The VWNN is embedded in the computational core of the Narada wireless
sensor node for on-line execution. Data generated by a steel framed structure excited by seismic ground motions is used
for validation of the embedded VWNN model.
This paper presents further advancements made in an ongoing project following a series of presentations made
at the same SPIE conference in the past. Compared with traditional microprocessor-based systems, rapidly advancing
field-programmable gate array (FPGA) technology offers a more powerful, efficient and flexible hardware
platform. An FPGA-based design is developed to classify three types of nonlinearities (including linear, hardening
and softening) of a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system subjected to free vibration. This significantly
advances the team's previous work on using FPGAs for wireless structural health monitoring.
The classification is achieved by embedding two important algorithms - empirical mode decomposition (EMD)
and backbone curve analysis. A series of systematic efforts is made to embed EMD, which involves cubic spline
fitting, in an FPGA-based hardware design. Throughout the process, we take advantage of concurrent operation
and strive for a trade-off between computational efficiency and resource utilization. We have started to pursue
our work in the context of FPGA-based computation. In particular, handling fixed-point precision is framed
under data-path optimization. Our approach for data-path optimization is necessarily manual and thus may
not guarantee an optimal design. Nonetheless, our study could provide a baseline case for future work using
analytical data-path optimization for this and numerous other powerful algorithms for wireless structural health monitoring.
Compared with traditional microprocessor-based systems, rapidly advancing field-programmable gate array
(FPGA) technology offers a more powerful, efficient and flexible hardware platform. An FPGA and microprocessor
(i.e., hardware and software) co-design is developed to classify three types of nonlinearities (including
linear, hardening and softening) of a single-degree-of-freedom (SDOF) system subjected to free vibration. This
significantly advances the team's previous work on using FPGAs for wireless structural health monitoring.
The classification is achieved by embedding two important algorithms - empirical mode decomposition (EMD)
and backbone curve analysis. Design considerations to embed EMD in FPGA and microprocessor are discussed.
In particular, the implementation of cubic spline fitting and the challenges encountered using both hardware
and software environments are discussed. The backbone curve technique is fully implemented within the FPGA
hardware and used to extract instantaneous characteristics from the uniformly distributed data sets produced
by the EMD algorithm as presented in a previous SPIE conference by the team. An off-the-shelf high-level
abstraction tool along with the MATLAB/Simulink environment is utilized to manage the overall FPGA and
microprocessor co-design.
Given the limited computational resources of an embedded system, we strive for a balance between the
maximization of computational efficiency and minimization of resource utilization. The value of this study lies
well beyond merely programming existing algorithms in hardware and software. Among others, extensive and
intensive judgment is exercised involving experiences and insights with these algorithms, which renders processed
instantaneous characteristics of the signals that are well-suited for wireless transmission.
This paper continues the development of a heuristic initialization methodology for designing multilayer feedforward
neural networks aimed at modeling nonlinear functions for engineering mechanics applications as presented
previously at SPIE 2003, and 2005 to 2007. Seeking a transparent and domain knowledge-based approach
for neural network initialization and result interpretation, the authors examine the efficiency of linear sums
of sigmoidal functions while offering constructive methods to approximate functions in engineering mechanics
applications. This study provides details and results of mapping the four arithmetic operations (summation,
subtraction, multiplication, division) as well as other functions including reciprocal, Gaussian and Mexican hat
functions into multilayer feedforward neural networks with one hidden layer. The approximation and training
examples demonstrate the efficiency and accuracy of the proposed mapping techniques and details. Future work
is also identified. This effort directly contributes to the further extension of the proposed initialization procedure
in that it opens the door for the approximation of a wider range of nonlinear functions.
This paper presents some preliminary results of an ongoing
project. A pattern classification algorithm is being developed and
embedded into a Field-Programmable Gate Array (FPGA) and
microprocessor-based data processing core in this
project. The goal is to enable and optimize the functionality of
onboard data processing of nonlinear, nonstationary data for smart
wireless sensing in structural health monitoring. Compared with traditional
microprocessor-based systems, fast growing FPGA technology offers a more powerful,
efficient, and flexible hardware platform including on-site
(field-programmable) reconfiguration capability of hardware. An
existing nonlinear identification algorithm is used as the
baseline in this study. The implementation within a hardware-based
system is presented in this paper, detailing the design
requirements, validation, tradeoffs, optimization, and challenges
in embedding this algorithm. An off-the-shelf high-level
abstraction tool along with the Matlab/Simulink environment is
utilized to program the FPGA, rather than coding the hardware
description language (HDL) manually. The implementation is validated by comparing
the simulation results with those from Matlab. In particular, the
Hilbert Transform is embedded into the FPGA hardware and applied
to the baseline algorithm as the centerpiece in processing
nonlinear time histories and extracting instantaneous features of
nonstationary dynamic data. The selection of proper numerical
methods for the hardware execution of the selected identification
algorithm and consideration of the fixed-point representation are
elaborated. Other challenges include the issues of the timing in
the hardware execution cycle of the design, resource
consumption, approximation accuracy, and user flexibility of
input data types limited by the simplicity of this preliminary
design. Future work includes making an FPGA and
microprocessor operate together to embed a further developed
algorithm that yields better computational and power efficiency.
This paper is a continuation of the authors' previous effort (presented at SPIE 2006) of developing a "Smart Dust"
(Mica2 Motes)-based wireless sensor network to detect hazardous roadway surface conditions. New developments
reported herein focus on a series of investigations into the performance of "Smart Dust" wireless network. A
series of pseudo-outdoor and road tests are conducted in this study. The network is fairly small with a large
transmitting range between each Mote, compared with the published work on applying the same product. Surge
Time Synchronization is explored in the specific application to allow each Mote to "wake up" periodically at
a predefined time interval. In addition, a fairly simplistic pattern classification algorithm is embedded into the
Motes to create the smart wireless sensing application. Many performance metrics of the adopted "Smart Dust"
wireless sensor network with a small size and large transmitting range are revealed in this study through a
series of data processing efforts. Results are presented to examine (1) network connectivity, (2) packet delivery
performance, (3) initial connection time, (4) error rate, (5) battery life, and (6) other network routing properties
such as the parent time histories for each Mote. These results and analysis form a database for future efforts to
better understand the performance of and the collected results from "Smart Dust".
This paper introduces a continuous effort towards the development of a heuristic initialization methodology
for constructing multilayer feedforward neural networks to model nonlinear functions. In this and previous
studies that this work is built upon, including the one presented at SPIE 2006, the authors do not presume to
provide a universal method to approximate arbitrary functions, rather the focus is given to the development of
a rational and unambiguous initialization procedure that applies to the approximation of nonlinear functions
in the specific domain of engineering mechanics. The applications of this exploratory work can be numerous
including those associated with potential correlation and interpretation of the inner workings of neural networks,
such as damage detection. The goal of this study is fulfilled by utilizing the governing physics and mathematics
of nonlinear functions and the strength of the sigmoidal basis function. A step-by-step graphical procedure
utilizing a few neural network prototypes as "templates" to approximate commonly seen memoryless nonlinear
functions of one or two variables is further developed in this study. Decomposition of complex nonlinear functions
into a summation of some simpler nonlinear functions is utilized to exploit this prototype-based initialization
methodology. Training examples are presented to demonstrate the rationality and effciency of the proposed
methodology when compared with the popular Nguyen-Widrow initialization algorithm. Future work is also
identfied.
Pavement maintenance is vital for travel safety; detecting road weather conditions using a wireless sensing network poses many challenges due to the harsh environment. This paper presents some preliminary results of an ongoing effort of applying "Smart Dust" sensor network for monitoring pavement temperature and moisture condition to detect icy road condition. Careful considerations yield effective solutions to various hardware and software development issues including the selection of sensors and antenna, design of casing, interfacing motes with alien sensors and programming of motes. A series of experiments is carried out to study traffic interference to packet delivery performance of a small-scale sensor network in a pseudo-field environment. In addition, several overnight tests are conducted to study the performance of motes operated under a power efficient condition. The results are analyzed and challenges are identified in this smart sensing application. The aforementioned research activities would benefit robust real-world implementations of off-the-shelf sensor network products.
This paper introduces a heuristic methodology for designing multilayer feedforward neural networks to model the types of nonlinear functions common to many engineering mechanics applications. It is well known that a perfect way to determine the ideal architecture to initialize neural network training has not yet been established. This could be because this challenging issue can only be properly addressed by looking into the features of the function to be approximated and thus might be hard to tackle in a general sense. In this study, the authors do not presume to provide a universal method approximate an arbitrary function, rather the focus is given to modeling nonlinear hysteretic restoring forces, a significant domain function approximation problem. The governing physics and mathematics of nonlinear hysteretic dynamics as well as the strength of the sigmoidal basis function are exploited to determine both an efficient neural network architecture (e.g., the number of hidden nodes) as well as effective initial weight and bias values for those nodes. Training examples are presented to demonstrate and validate the proposed initial design methodology. Comparisons are made between the proposed methodology and the widely used Nguyen-Widrow Initialization. Future work is also identified.
KEYWORDS: Field programmable gate arrays, Data processing, Platinum, Algorithm development, Digital signal processing, Sensors, Detection and tracking algorithms, Computer simulations, MATLAB, Structural health monitoring
To continue with the development of a wireless sensing unit built upon an off-the-shelf FPGA development board presented by the authors at SPIE 2005, this paper outlines a further effort consisting of embedding onboard computations, simulation and validation of the FPGA-based wireless sensing unit that is able to collect, process and transmit data. This research supports the concepts of decentralized wireless sensor networks and local-based damage detection, where individual wireless sensor nodes are capable of performing intricate tasks and can eventually transmit the processed results. An FPGA-based hardware platform is thus looked upon as a major contender for performing this function in a proficient manner. Throughout this research, the principal design complexities, in terms of both hardware and software development, are kept to a minimum. Development cycle and monetary cost of the hardware are other major considerations for this research. Data processing functions including windowing, Fast Fourier Transform (FFT), peak detection, are implemented into the selected FPGA, when limitations of different design options are explored to yield a solution that optimizes the resources of the selected FPGA. Numerical simulations and laboratory validations are carried out to scrutinize the operations and flexibility of the design.
This study investigates the possibility of injecting parametric
features into nonparametric identification techniques like neural
networks in modeling nonlinear dynamic restoring forces. This
affords the potential of creating relationships between model
parameters in data-driven techniques and phenomenological
behaviors in physics-based modeling, which is prompted by the
needs in structural health monitoring and damage detections. Here
a linear sum of sigmoidal basis functions is used in modeling
nonlinear hysteretic restoring forces of single-degree-of-freedom
oscillators under the force-state mapping formulation to showcase
this idea. A constructive approach is proposed to guide the neural
network initial design, where the number of hidden layers and
hidden nodes as well as the initial values of the weights and
biases are decided upon the characteristics of the nonlinear
restoring force to be modeled rather than through indiscriminate
numerical initialization schemes. Numerical simulations are
presented to demonstrate the efficiency and engineered feature of
this approach. A training example is provided to show that this
approach enables neural networks to carry either physical or
phenomenological "meaning" while remaining adaptive and thus
powerful in system identification.
KEYWORDS: Field programmable gate arrays, Sensors, Analog electronics, Logic devices, Structural health monitoring, Data communications, Digital signal processing, Logic, Civil engineering, Data processing
This paper presents the preliminary results of an investigation on the application of Field Programmable Gate Arrays (FPGAs) to civil infrastructure health monitoring. An off-the-shelf FPGA development board available at a comparable price to microprocessor development boards is adopted in this study. Advantages, disadvantages, feasibility and design concerns when using such a reconfigurable hardware architecture for implementing algorithms for structural health monitoring in a wireless sensor unit are studied in a showcase of implementing Fast Fourier Transform (FFT) in a wireless data transmitting setting.
KEYWORDS: Sensors, Analog electronics, Signal attenuation, Buildings, Microcontrollers, Data transmission, Data acquisition, Digital signal processing, Data conversion, Sensing systems
This paper presents the preliminary findings of a study on data and system identification results (derived from collected data) in a wireless sensing environment. The goal of this study is to understand how various hardware design choices and operational conditions affect the quality of the data and accuracy of the identified results; the focus of this paper is packet and data loss. A series of experimental investigations are carried out using a laboratory shaking table instrumented with off-the-shelf Micro-Electro-Mechanical Systems (MEMS) accelerometers. A wireless sensing unit is developed to interface with these wired analog accelerometers to enable wireless data transmission. To reduce the overall design variance and aid convenient application in civil infrastructure health monitoring, this wireless unit is built with off-the-shelf microcontroller and radio development boards. The anti-aliasing filter and analog-to-digital convectors (ADC) are the only customized components in the hardware. By varying critical hardware configurations, including using analog accelerometers of different commercial brands, taking various designs for the anti-aliasing filter, and adopting ADCs with different resolutions, shaking table tests are repeated, the collected data are processed, and the results are compared. Operational conditions such as sampling rate and wireless data transmitting range are also altered separately in the repeated testing. In all of the cases tested, data is also collected using a wire-based data acquisition system to serve as a performance baseline for evaluation of the wireless data transmission performance. Based on this study, the challenges in the hardware design of wireless sensing units and data processing are identified.
A powerful Volterra/Wiener Neural Network (VWNN) is designed to
reflect the underlying dynamics of hysteretic systems. The
nonlinear response of multi-degree-of-freedom systems subjected to
force excitation can be tracked using this neural network. More
importantly, the inner-workings of the network, such as the design
parameters as well as the weights and biases, can be loosely
related to physical properties of dynamic systems. This effort
differs markedly from what is typically done for neural networks
as well as the original version of the VWNN in Ref. 1. An adaptive training algorithm and improved formulation of high-order nodes are adopted to enable fast training and stable convergence. A training example is provided to demonstrate that the VWNN is able to yield a unique set of solutions (i.e., the weights) when the values of the
controlling design parameters are fixed a priori. The
selection of these design parameters in practical applications is
discussed. The advantages of the VWNN illustrate the potential of
applying highly flexible nonparametric identification techniques
in a parametric fashion to suit the needs of structural health
monitoring and damage detections.
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