Frequency-domain near-infrared spectroscopy (FD-NIRS) can measure absolute tissue optical properties for functional brain imaging. Multiple source-detector separations (SDS), and multiple modulation frequencies can be used for FD-NIRS application in homogeneous or multi-layer tissue models. A multiple-frequency approach is advantageous in building more compact systems with a single SDS. In this work, we compare the accuracy of estimating absolute optical properties of a multi-layered tissue model using multi-distance and multi-frequency approaches. We demonstrate that the multiple-frequency approach is comparable in accuracy to the multiple-distance approach and can be confidently implemented for brain imaging applications.
Frequency Domain (FD)-fNIRS workflow has been designed to demonstrate (i) benefits of phase in FD measurements to offers greater hemodynamic response function (HRF) contrast than intensity alone, (ii) multiple parameter recovery paradigms in dual slopes (DS) which use” nut”, not” banana” shaped sensitivity profiles and (iii) subject-atlas registration for source-detector locations and model-based tomography.
High density diffuse optical tomography (HD-DOT) is a functional neuroimaging method that uses multiple overlapping and multi-distance functional near-infrared spectroscopy measurements in a dense grid array. Herein, we investigate multiple frequency and matrix scaling strategies to improve frequency domain HD-DOT methods and use simulations of point spread functions in anatomical models to assess the improvement attainable over standard methods. We observe a small improvement in image quality metrics by adding multiple modulation frequencies, and a significant improvement after column scaling sensitivity matrices. These methods may advance image quality of HD-DOT beyond current limitations.
By simulating measurements from a HD-DOT system on a head atlas, we show that combining multiple modulation frequencies improves image quality over the standard continuous wave method and performs comparably to the single frequency counterpart.
Subject specific atlas based tomography was achieved using a 3D camera scan for surface registration. The registered atlas was then used for diffuse optical tomography from frequency domain measurements.
Frequency domain functional near infrared spectroscopy and tomography (FD-fNIRS-DOT) utilizes information about attenuation and pathlength of measurements. The improved quantitative accuracy of FD-fNIRS-DOT is shown as applied in brain imaging.
Significance: High density diffuse optical tomography (HD-DOT) as applied in functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS) is largely limited to continuous wave (CW) data. Using a single modulation frequency, frequency domain (FD) HD-DOT has recently demonstrated better localization of focal activation as compared to CW data. We show that combining CW and FD measurements and multiple modulation frequencies increases imaging performance in fNIRS.
Aim: We evaluate the benefits of multiple modulation frequencies, combining different frequencies as well as CW data in fNIRS HD-DOT.
Approach: A layered model was used, with activation occurring within a cortex layer. CW and FD measurements were simulated at 78, 141, and 203 MHz with and without noise. The localization error, full width half maximum, and effective resolution were evaluated.
Results: Across the average of the three metrics, at 141 MHz, FD performed 8.4% better than CW, and the combination of CW and FD was 21.7% better than CW. FD measurements at 203 MHz performed 5% better than 78 MHz. Moreover, the three combined modulation frequencies of FD and CW performed up to 3.92% better than 141 MHz alone.
Conclusions: We show that combining CW and FD measurements offers better performance than FD alone, with higher modulation frequencies increasing accuracy. Combining CW and FD measurements at multiple modulation frequencies yields the best overall performance.
High Density Diffuse Optical Tomography (HD-DOT) as applied in fNIRS is largely limited to continuous wave (CW) data. Using a single modulation frequency, frequency domain (FD) HD-DOT has recently demonstrated better localisation of focal activation as compared to CW data. This study shows that combining CW and FD measurements and multiple modulation frequencies increases imaging performance in fNIRS. This work evaluates the benefits of multiple modulation frequencies, combining different frequencies as well as CW data in fNIRS HD-DOT. A slab geometry model was used, with activation occurring within a cortex layer. CW and FD measurements were simulated at 78, 141 and 203 MHz. The localization error, full width half maximum and effective resolution were evaluated. Across the average of the three metrics, at 141 MHz, FD performed 8.4% better than CW and the combination of CW and FD was 21.7% better than CW. FD measurements at 203 MHz performed 5% better than 78 MHz. Moreover, the three combined modulation frequencies of CW and FD performed up to 3.92% better than 141 MHz alone. This work shows that combining CW and FD measurements offer better performance than FD alone, with higher modulation frequencies increasing accuracy. Combining CW and FD measurements at multiple modulation frequencies yields the best overall performance.
Photoacoustic imaging is a powerful and increasingly popular technique for tissue diagnostics. Suitable tissue- equivalent phantoms are in high demand for validating photoacoustic imaging methods and for clinical training. In this work, we describe a method of directly 3D printing a photoacoustic tissue-equivalent phantom of a kidney based on Gel Wax, which is a mix of polymer and mineral oil. A kidney phantom that is compatible with photoacoustic scanning will enable clinicians to evaluate a portable LED-based photoacoustic and ultrasound imaging system as a means of locating tumors and other abnormalities. This represents a significant step towards clinical translation of the compact system. Training using realistic phantoms reduces the risks associated with clinical procedures. Complications during procedures can arise due to the specific structure of the kidney under investigation. Thus the ability to create a 3D printed phantom based on detailed anatomical images of a specific patient enables clinicians to train on a phantom with exactly the same structure as the kidney to be treated. Recently we developed a novel 3D printer based on gel wax. The device combines native gel wax with glass microspheres and titanium dioxide (TiO2) particles to obtain a medium with tissue-like optical and acoustic properties. 3D models created using this printer can be given a range of values of optical absorption reduced scattering coefficients. The ability to 3D patient-specific phantoms at low cost has the potential to revolutionize the production and use of tissue-equivalent phantoms in future, and can be applied to a wide range of organs and imaging modalities.
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