We have numerically optimized several broadband aperiodic normal-incidence multilayer mirrors based on Sb/B4C for the 85 – 125 Å spectral domain for spectroscopy applications below the silicon L-edge (λ = 125 Å). Three multilayer mirrors were then synthesized. The designed multilayer structures were optimized for a maximum uniform reflectivity in the 90 – 100, 95 – 105 and 100 – 120 Å wavebands, respectively. All the Sb/B4C multilayer mirrors were synthesized via magnetron sputtering in argon medium. The multilayers reflection spectra were evaluated with the use of a laboratory XUV spectrograph employing a laser-plasma radiation source, the mirror under study, a transmission diffraction grating and a backside-illuminated CCD matrix. The experimentally recorded spectra were compared with the theoretical ones. Numerical calculations of aperiodic Sb/B4C multilayer structures with different layer densities are presented. Effects of lower densities and small random variations of the individual layer widths on the reflection spectra are discussed.
We present the design, calculations and simulations of high-resolution concave-VLS-grating-based soft X-ray and VUV spectrographs, as well as a plane VLS grating instrument. We have designed a normal-incidence imaging VLS grating spectrograph for a 820 – 1690 Å spectral interval and a series of grazing-incidence VLS spectrographs with imaging capabilities. The experimentally recorded spectral images of laboratory laser plasmas were obtained with the aid of a VLS spectrometer based on a concave aperiodic multilayer mirror and a plane VLS grating. Two modifications of this spectrometer were implemented with two different VLS gratings. These modifications exhibit spectral resolution of 500 and 800 over the 125 – 300 Å spectral waveband. Spatial resolution corresponds to double CCD-detector pixel size.
Our intention is to develop high-resolution stigmatic spectral imaging in the XUV (2 – 40 nm). We have designed, aligned and tested a broadband stigmatic spectrometer for a range of 12–30 nm, which makes combined use of a normalincidence multilayer mirror (MM) (in particular, a broadband aperiodic MM) and a grazing-incidence plane varied linespace (VLS) reflection grating. The concave MM produces a slightly astigmatic image of the radiation source (for instance, the entrance slit), and the VLS grating produces a set of its dispersed stigmatic spectral images. The multilayer structure determines the spectral width of the operating range, which may amount to more than an octave in wavelength (e.g. 12.5–30 nm for an aperiodic Mo/Si MM), while the VLS grating controls the spectral focal curve. The stigmatism condition is satisfied simultaneously for two wavelengths, 14 and 27 nm. In this case, the condition of non-rigorous stigmatism is fulfilled for the entire wavelength range. A LiF laser plasma spectrum was recorded in one 0.5 J laser shot. A spatial resolution of 26 μm and a spectral resolution of 900 were demonstrated in the 12.5 – 25 nm range. We also report the design of a set of flat-field spectrometers of Harada type with VLS gratings. VLS gratings were made by ebeam and interference lithography. A technique (analytical + numerical) was developed for calculating optical schemes for writing plane and concave VLS gratings with predefined line density variation.
We present experimental results, theory, and simulations demonstrating two novel sources of coherent X-ray radiation
generated in the relativistic laser (>1018W/cm2) interaction with easily accessible, repetitive, and debris-free gas jet
targets. The first source is based on a relativistic mirror reflecting a counter-propagating laser pulse. A strongly nonlinear
breaking wake wave driven by an intense laser pulse can act as a semi-transparent relativistic flying mirror. Such a
mirror directly converts counter-propagating laser light into a high-frequency (XUV or X-ray) ultrashort pulse due to the
double Doppler effect. In the experimental demonstration with the 9 TW J-KAREN laser, the flying mirror generated in
a He gas jet partially reflected a 1 TW pulse, providing up to ~1010 photons, 60 nJ (~1012 photons/sr) in the XUV range
(12.8-22 nm). The second source is demonstrated with the laser power ranging from 9 to 170 TW in experiments with
the J-KAREN and Astra Gemini lasers. The odd and even order harmonics generated by linearly as well as circularly
polarized pulses are emitted forward out of the gas jet. The 120 TW laser pulses produce harmonics with ~3×1013photons/sr (~600 μJ/sr) in the 120±5 eV spectral range. The observed harmonics cannot be explained by previously
known mechanisms (atomic harmonics, betatron radiation, nonlinear Thomson scattering, etc.). We introduce a novel
mechanism of harmonic generation based on the relativistic laser-plasma phenomena (self-focusing, cavity evacuation,
bow wave generation), mathematical catastrophe theory which explains the formation of structurally stable electron
density singularities, spikes, and collective radiation of a compact charge driven by a relativistic laser.
Electromagnetic wave generation in the extreme ultraviolet (XUV) and infrared (IR) wavelength range occurs
during the interaction of intense short laser pulses with underdense plasmas. XUV pulses are generated through
laser light reflection from relativistically moving electron dense shells (flying mirrors). A proof-of-principle and
an advanced experiment on flying mirrors are presented. Both of the experiments demonstrated light reflection
and frequency upshift to the XUV wavelength range (14-20 nm). The advanced experiment with a head-on
collision of two laser pulses exhibited the high reflected photon number. IR radiation, which is observed in the
forward direction, has the wavelength of 5 μm and dominantly the same polarization as the driving laser. The
source of the IR radiation is attributed to emission from relativistic solitons formed in the underdense plasma.
We report measurements of the reflection spectra of (i) concave (spherical and parabolic) Mo/Si, Mg/Si, and Al/Zr
multilayer mirrors (MMs) intended for imaging solar spectroscopy in the framework of the TESIS/CORONAS-FOTON
Satellite Project and of (ii) an aperiodic Mo/Si MM optimized for maximum uniform reflectivity in the 125-250 Å range
intended for laboratory applications. The reflection spectra were measured in the configuration of a transmission grating
spectrometer employing the radiation of a tungsten laser-driven plasma as the source. The function of detectors was
fulfilled by backside-illuminated CCDs coated with Al or Zr/Si multilayer absorption filters. High-intensity second-order
interference reflection peaks at wavelengths of about 160 Å were revealed in the reflection spectra of the 304-Å Mo/Si
MMs. By contrast, the second-order reflection peak in the spectra of the new-generation narrow-band (~12 Å FWHM)
304-Å Mg/Si MMs is substantially depressed. Manifestations of the NEXAFS structure of the L2, 3 absorption edges of
Al and Al2O3 were observed in the spectra recorded. The broadband Mo/Si MM was employed as the focusing element
of spectrometers in experiments involving (i) the charge exchange of multiply charged ions with the donor atoms of a
rare-gas jet; (ii) the spectroscopic characterization of a debris-free soft X-ray radiation source excited by Nd laser pulses
in a Xe jet (iii) near-IR-to-soft-X-ray frequency conversion (double Doppler effect) occurring in the retroreflection from
the relativistic electron plasma wake wave (flying mirror) driven by a multiterawatt laser in a pulsed helium jet.
Aperiodic multilayer structures (MSs) show promise as broadband soft X-ray mirrors for stigmatic diffraction spectroscopic instruments. We have derived aperiodic MSs optimized for maximum uniform normal-incidence reflectivity throughout a prescribed wavelength range, e.g., 130 - 190 Å (R=24 %), 125 - 250 Å (16 %), etc. Each of these aperiodic MSs exhibits an unparalleled integral reflectivity which substantially exceeds that of any periodic multilayer mirror pertaining to the corresponding wavelength range. Several Mo/Si aperiodic MSs were synthesized by magnetron sputtering on concave substrates to exhibit a relatively uniform reflectivity of (15 - 11)% in the 125 - 250 Å range, close to the theoretical predictions. These multilayers served as the focusing elements of high-transmission stigmatic transmission grating spectrograph with a plate scale of 20 or 4 Å/mm. The spectrograph was employed to investigate the laser plasma - gas jet interaction and characterize the Xe gas-jet laser-plasma XUV radiation source simultaneously with spatial and spectral resolution in the wavelength range above 124 Å.
We have theoretically explored into the reflection of extremely short X-ray pulses by MSs. Special-design aperiodic MSs were shown to possess the unrivaled capacity to reflect few-cycle X-ray pulses ranging into the attoseconds. Aperiodic MSs have been calculated that are capable of reflecting pulses which comprise only three wave periods of an X-ray electromagnetic wave.
A spectroscopic investigation was made of a debris-free soft X-ray radiation source driven by the pulses of a solid-state laser (0.4 J, 6 ns, 1.08 microns) focused in a pulsed xenon jet. Source images at a wavelength of 180 Å were obtained using a concave soft X-ray multilayer mirror. To obtain space-resolved source emission spectra above 125 Å, advantage was taken of a stigmatic high-transmission broadband diffraction spectrograph. The spectrograph comprised a large-aperture transmission diffraction grating (1000 or 5000 lines/mm) and a novel aperiodic focusing normal-incidence multilayer mirror possessing a uniform reflectivity in the 125 -250 Å range. The yield of soft X-ray radiation was determined with the aid of a fast absolute-calibrated X-ray AXUV-5 photodiode. The photoabsorption in the peripheral gas-jet regions was found to play a significant role in the soft X-ray yield. Numerical model simulations were performed to elucidate the plasma dynamics.
The soft X-ray spectrograph was also employed to study the interaction of the pulsed gas jet with the incident stream of the plasma produced by laser irradiation of a ~1-cm distant solid target. The soft X-ray spectra arising from the interaction were attributed to the charge exchange of multiply charged plasma ions with gas jet atoms.
We describe several spectroscopic techniques for space-resolved diagnostics of inhomogeneous plasmas from the line and continuous XUV spectra of multiply charged ions, involving measurements of temperature, density, ion composition, ablation velocity, etc. To this end, we have developed a family of stigmatic high-throughput spectroscopic instruments ranging in resolution from 500 to over 20000. The new instruments harness separation of the focusing and dispersion functions: the XUV radiation is dispersed by plane grazing-incidence gratings or transmission diffraction gratings while the focusing is transferred to concave normal-incidence multilayer mirrors or grazing-incidence toroidal mirrors. We have obtained medium-to-high resolution spectra of laser-produced plasmas to infer the plasma parameters (density profiles, expansion velocity, etc). The operating range of a spectrograph which incorporates periodic multilayer mirrors is confined to the resonance reflection band of the mirrors. To meet the demand for broadband stigmatic instruments, a panoramic (110 - 300 angstrom) medium-resolution spectrograph was made employing a Mo/Si multilayer mirror with a lateral gradient of the period structure (0.9 Angstrom/mm) and a transmission diffraction grating (5000 lines/mm). An alternative way to obtain panoramic stigmatic spectra involves the development of broadband aperiodic multilayer mirrors. We have developed a numerical technique based on the fast calculation of derivatives, which allows us to determine aperiodic structures with prescribed reflectance spectra and augmented integral reflectivity. This technique has proved to be efficient both in the soft and hard X-ray ranges.
A new approach is proposed for the design of wide band-pass multilayer optical elements for the hard x-ray spectral region. The method, based on the combination of analytical and numerical methods, solves the inverse problem consisting of inferring the composition profile of a depth-graded multilayer coating. First, assuming the multilayer d-spacing profile to be a monotone function of the depth and the d- spacing gradient to be large enough, we derived the differential equation that describes the change of period necessary to guarantee a given spectral reflectivity profile. Then, a computer code using an algorithm of steepest descent was used to refine numerically the multilayer period profile, each layer thickness being treated as an independent variable. When using the solution to the differential equation as a starting point of the direct problem, a many-fold decrease of computer time could be obtained. At each step, the spectral dependence of reflectivity was accurately computed using a standard matrix method. Simulations of the particular case of constant reflectivity and maximum integrated reflectivity over a wide spectral range are presented. The best choice of material pairs for comprising a depth-graded multilayer structure is discussed from the viewpoint of maximum achievable reflectivity and least number of bi-layers. Features of depth-graded multilayer mirrors, which are distinctive from conventional periodic mirrors, are examined.
We report the experimental results on production of multilayer soft x-ray and EUV mirrors and their application in x-ray spectroscopy and fluorescence analysis, as well as for development of EUV lithographic and x-ray microscopic devices and soft x-ray point sources. The problem of the production and the investigation of short-period x-ray multilayers and multilayer (gamma) -filters is discussed.
Spectral characteristics of plane multilayer amplitude molybdenum-silicon diffraction gratings (1000 and 2000 lines/mm, d-spacing of 115 angstrom), fabricated by electron- beam lithography, were determined using a laser-produced plasma XUV radiation source. The gratings were studied at near-normal incidence and at an angle of incidence of 36 degrees in stigmatic and quasi-stigmatic spectrograph systems with moderate dispersion. The task of focusing radiation was imposed on either a grazing-incidence toroidal mirror or a normal-incidence Mo-Si multilayer mirror with a d-spacing of 115 angstrom. The spectral profile of resonance reflection by the gratings was determined in the first and second Bragg orders of the multilayer structure for different angles of incidence. Line spectra of multiply charged F, Na, Mg, and Cl ions were recorded in the 160 - 230 angstrom range by means of these multilayer gratings, and the resolving power of the gratings was determined.
Alexander Ignatiev, Nikolai Kolachevsky, Viatcheslav Korneev, Viktor Krutov, Sergey Kuzin, Alexander Mitrofanov, Andrey Pertzov, Eugene Ragozin, Vladimir Slemzin, Igor Tindo, Igor Zhitnik, Nikolai Salashchenko, Roger Thomas
The paper describes the main characteristics of the X-ray optical elements (multilayer spherical and aspherical mirrors and diffraction gratings for the 13-30 nm XUV spectral region, Bragg crystal spherical mirrors for the 0.18 and 0.84 m soft X-ray spectral regions) manufactured for the TEREK-C solar XUV telescope array and the RES-C solar spectroheliograph. The TEREK-C and RES-C instruments were placed aboard the CORONAS-I satellite which was launched on March 2, 1994. The testing procedures and results of laboratory tests in X-ray spectral range are also presented.
Along with ultrahigh-resolution narrow-band spectrometers, a demand exists for medium- and high-resolution stigmatic instruments of a survey type, covering a spectral range of more than a hundred angstroms. Here, we describe several stigmatic spectroscopic configurations intended for characterizing various soft x-ray radiation sources (laser- produced plasmas, XUV lasers, etc.) and optical components [multilayer mirrors (MMs), absorption filters, etc.] in a broad spectral range. The combination of a grazing-incidence toroidal mirror and a large-area transmission diffraction grating (TG) made up a broadband spectrograph with a medium dispersion, with a plate scale of 4-to-20 angstrom/mm, which has proven to be inherently suited for characterizing plane MMs and the laser-plasma source itself. Two versions of W- coated toroidal mirrors were used, which operated at grazing angles of 7.6 degrees and 4 degrees and had respective practical short-wave cutoffs at about 40 and 15 angstrom. Line spectra of low-Z targets and quasicontinuous spectra of a tungsten target were obtained with a resolution of about 800. The configuration of a TG spectrograph was used to characterize CoC MMs with a d-spacing of 38 angstroms fabricated on Si(111) substrates by e-beam deposition and Kr+ ion beam polishing of metal layers. The absolute reflectivities near 75 angstrom were measured at 10%. The combination of a large-area TG and a concave MM with a strong lateral gradient of the d-spacing made up a stigmatic spectrograph for the 110 - 300 angstrom range. When the gradient was parallel to the TG lines, the TG was placed in the converging beam. When the gradient was orthogonal to the grating lines, the TG dispersed, unlike the configurations used previously, the diverging beam incident on the focusing MM. Removing the entrance slit transforms the spectrograph into a spectroheliograph. The latter configuration is well suited for producing 2-D solar images in the radiation of spectral lines and far-field images of single- and many- frequency x-ray lasers.
We present the spectroscopic techniques for studying imaging, spectral, and polarizing properties of multilayer optics intended for solar astronomy and laboratory applications. The measurements were performed using line or quasicontinuous radiation (15 - 400 angstrom) of a point-like source driven by 0.15-J, 5-ns laser pulses at 0.54 micrometer. The imaging quality of focusing normal-incidence multilayer mirrors (MMs) in the subarcsecond resolution range was evaluated from small- source imaging tests employing a high-resolution photographic film. The spectral properties of focusing and plane MMs were measured using the configuration of a transmission grating spectrograph with a medium dispersion, the plate scale typically lying in the range 10 - 30 angstroms/mm. This technique allowed us to measure: (1) the resonance wavelengths versus MM aperture (evaluation of lateral uniformity of the d- spacing); (2) the spectral shape of the primary resonance reflection peak; (3) outside-resonance reflection and higher- order reflection maxima revealed under irradiation by a broad spectrum; (4) for plane MMs, the reflectivities at arbitrary angles of incidence. In the evaluation of plane MMs, the function of focusing radiation was transferred to grazing- incidence toroidal mirrors. About 40 MMs ranging in resonance wavelength from 45 to 310 angstroms, synthesized in different laboratories, were studied using these techniques. A broadband spectrograph comprising a grazing-incidence toroidal mirror and a transmission grating proved to be inherently suited for characterizing the laser-plasma source itself. Two versions of tungsten-coated toroidal mirrors were used, which operated at grazing angles of 7.6 degrees and 4 degrees and had the respective practical short-wave cutoffs at about 40 and 15 angstroms. A source of collimated polarized quasimonochromatic radiation in the 170 to 180 angstrom band was implemented around MMs and our laser-plasma source. The peak polarizance of plane Mo-Si MMs with a d-spacing of 120 angstroms, measured around 175 angstroms at 41 degrees off normal, proved to be 98.2%, which was consistent with the calculated value (98.75%). Two high-resolution high-throughput stigmatic spectrographs were implemented, each comprising a couple of identical concave normal-incidence MMs and a plane grating at grazing incidence. Space-resolved line spectra of laser- produced plasma were obtained and analyzed. The spectrograph for the 130 - 140 angstrom range had a practical resolving power of at least 4000, a plate scale of 0.7 angstroms/mm, and measured 0.6 m. These parameters for the 170 - 190 angstrom range instrument were respectively 24,000, 0.35 angstrom/mm, and 1.1 m. A highly dispersive spectroheliograph was put to a test using a laser-plasma source; the configuration was closely related to that of the spectrograph but involved a reversed ray propagation.
We have implemented a variety of stigmatic high-throughput high-resolution spectroscopic configurations in the XUV using focusing multilayer mirrors (MMs), transmission gratings (TGs), and conventional plane reflection gratings. A Type-I 1-m-long spectrograph, which comprises a couple of identical MMs with reflection peaks centered at 180 angstrom and a 1800 line/mm blazed grating operating in the second outside spectral order, has a residual astigmatism of 16 microns, a plate scale of 0.35 Angstrom/mm, a bandwidth of approximately 15 angstrom (FWHM), and a resolution of 24,000 (demonstrated). The solid angle of acceptance is a square which measures 0.03 rad multiplied by 0.015 rad. A density-dependent Stark shift of the 2p43s levels of Mg IV was observed in a laser plasma. A Type-II highly versatile spectrometer, which comprises one focusing MM and a TG used to disperse a converging beam, offers a high throughput and a moderate dispersion, with a plate scale typically in the range 5 - 50 angstrom/mm. With respect to these applications, a number of Mo-Si MMs were synthesized on fused silica substrates (r equals 2000 mm, D equals 60 mm). In combination with a point-like laser-plasma broadband radiation source, the Type-II configuration is by itself inherently suited for spectroscopic characterization of imaging MMs. Our capacity to evaluate the spectral response of MMs has improved dramatically after invoking a 5-cm2-aperture TG with a density of about 1000 lines/mm initially intended for x-ray astronomy. Stigmatic line spectra in a range of 165 - 185 angstrom were obtained in the Type-II configuration, and a resolution of 500 was demonstrated.
Using soft x-ray multilayer mirrors (MMs) and a laser-plasma broadband radiation source, we have implemented a pulsed 0.5-Hz-repetition-rate source of polarized quasimonochromatic radiation in the XUV. The x-ray optical setup comprises a focusing MM at near-normal incidence, a plane polarizing MM at 41 degrees off axis, and a plane multilayer analyzer which can be rotated by 90 degrees with respect to the polarizer. A stigmatic broadband spectrometer comprising a grazing incidence toroidal mirror and a large-aperture (5 cm2) transmission grating (TG) has proved to be useful in spectroscopic characterization of plane multilayer mirrors and the laser-plasma source. The second (reference) x-ray optical channel comprises a focusing MM and serves to monitor the energy of individual pulses. The focusing MMs image the laser-plasma source onto the sodium-salicylate-covered surfaces of flexible 0.7-cm-long light guides 13 mm in diameter coupled through light-guide disks to photomultipliers outside the vacuum tank. The visible and VUV radiation outside the resonance reflection peak is rejected by free-standing Al filters placed before the detectors. The dimension of the x-ray source was measured at 100 microns (width at base) using a CCD array covered with sodium salicylate. The polarizance of the plane MM was measured at 98.2% while the peak theoretical value for this Mo-Si multilayer structure (2d equals 240 angstrom, N equals 25, lambdao equals 171.4 angstrom, 41 degrees off axis) is 98.75%. The polarized source yields of the order of 5 (DOT) 108 photons per pulse in the resonance reflection band of the MMs.
For XUV-imaging of the Sun with sub-arc second resolution it is proposed to use the Herschel telescope with aspherical (toroidal) multilayer mirror working at out-of-axis angle 1.5 - 2 degree(s). In that case aberrations (mainly astigmatism) are sufficiently reduced so high resolution better than 1' may be obtained. In comparison with the Ritchey-Chretien two- mirror telescope which is regarded as perspective to reach closely the diffraction limited resolution, the Herschel telescope is more simple, less critical to adjustment and has higher throughput. Toroidal mirrors with diameter D equals 30 mm, focal length F equals 800 mm and ratio of sagittal and meridional radii of curvature Rm/Rs equals 1.001 have been made on super polished fused quartz substrates (roughness better than 7 A). After shape correction mirrors were covered by Mo-Si coating for 175 A wavelength band. The mirrors were used in high resolution channel of the TEREK-C telescope designed for the CORONAS space solar observatory which was launched on March 2, 1994. An example of the solar image obtained by this telescope is presented.
A novel diffraction spectroscopic instrument comprising two focusing multilayer mirrors (MMs) at near-normal incidence and a conventional blazed plane grating at grazing incidence has been implemented. A nearly perfect stigmatism and a theoretical resolving power above 6 X 104 are due to the separation of the focusing and dispersing functions. For higher throughput, MMs with nearly identical resonance reflection curves around (lambda) 0 approximately equals 135 angstroms have been synthesized employing a magnetron ion sputtering source. The instrument performance has been assessed using a laser-plasma XUV radiation source. The spectral resolution in excess of 4 X 103 and the applicability to space-resolved spectroscopy and plasma diagnosis have been demonstrated.
A number of high-performance normal-incidence multilayer mirrors (MMs) have been fabricated on concave (r equals 1.6 - 2.0 m) fused silica substrates using laser deposition and a magnetron ion sputtering source. The resonance wavelengths (lambda) 0 equals 2nd of the MMs synthesized are proximate to 45, 130, 175, 190, and 304 angstroms. The MMs have been subjected to scrutiny by a spectroscopic technique employing a laser-plasma broadband XUV radiation source. The spectral shapes of the resonance reflection curves, the (lambda) 0 values, and the aperture uniformity (topography) of the mirrors have been determined spectroscopically. Normal-incidence reflection maxima, which correspond to higher-order reflection (k(lambda) equals 2n(lambda )d, k > 1), have been observed for all of the Mo-Si MMs with (lambda) >= 175 angstroms.
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