We present the results of testing optimal linear-quadratic-Gaussian (LQG) control for tip and tilt Zernike wavefront modes on the SEAL (Santa cruz Extreme AO Lab) testbed. The controller employs a physics model conditioned by the expected tip/tilt power spectrum and vibration peaks. The model builds on similar implementations, such as that of the Gemini Planet Imager, by considering the effects of loop delays and the response of the control hardware. Tests are being performed on SEAL using the Fast Atmospheric Self-coherent camera Technique (FAST), and being executed using a custom Python library to align optics, generate interaction matrices, and perform real-time control by combining controllers with simulated disturbance signals to be corrected. We have carried out open-loop data collection, characterizing the natural bench dynamics, and have shown a reduction in RMS wavefront error due to integrator control and LQG control.
Ground-layer adaptive optics (GLAO) systems offer the possibility of improving the ”seeing” of large ground-based telescopes and increasing the efficiency and sensitivity of observations over a wide field-of-view. We explore the utility and feasibility of deploying a GLAO system at the W. M. Keck Observatory in order to feed existing and future multi-object spectrographs and wide-field imagers. We also briefly summarize science cases spanning exoplanets to high-redshift galaxy evolution that would benefit from a Keck GLAO system. Initial simulations indicate that a Keck GLAO system would deliver a 1.5x and 2x improvement in FWHM at optical (500 nm) and infrared (1.5
μm), respectively. The infrared instrument, MOSFIRE, is ideally suited for a Keck GLAO feed in that it has excellent image quality and is on the telescope’s optical axis. However, it lacks an atmospheric dispersion compensator, which would limit the minimum usable slit size for long-exposure science cases. Similarly, while LRIS and DEIMOS may be able to accept a GLAO feed based on their internal image quality, they lack either an atmospheric dispersion compensator (DEIMOS) or flexure compensation (LRIS) to utilize narrower slits matched to the GLAO image quality. However, some science cases needing shorter exposures may still benefit from Keck GLAO and we will investigate the possibility of installing an ADC.
We present a review of the ongoing research activity surrounding the adaptive optics system at the Shane telescope (ShaneAO) particularly the R&D efforts on the technology and algorithms for that will advance AO into wider application for astronomy. We are pursuing the AO challenges for whole sky coverage diffraction-limited correction down to visible science wavelengths. This demands high-order wavefront correction and bright artificial laser beacons. We present recent advancements in the development of MEMS based AO correction, woofer-tweeter architecture, wind-predictive wavefront control algorithms, atmospheric characterization, and a pulsed fiber amplifier guide star laser tuned for optical pumping of the sodium layer. We present the latest on-sky results from the new AO system and present status and experimental plans for the optical pumping guide star laser.
It is possible to create custom laser guidestar (LGS) asterisms from a single beam by using a deformable mirror to pattern the phase of the outgoing laser guidestar beam. This avoids the need for multiple laser launch assemblies, and in principle would allow one to position the multiple LGS spots in any desired arrangement around the science target, as well as dynamically rotate the LGS pattern on-sky and control the distribution of intensity in each spot. Simulations and laboratory experiments indicate that a PTT111 and PTT489 IrisAO MEMS deformable mirror and a Hamamatsu X8267 spatial light modulator may have applications for creating small LGS asterisms for biological imaging with adaptive optics. For astronomy applications, the phase values required to
produce the “3+1” laser guidestar asterism of Keck’s Next Generation AO system is also
investigated.
The Lick Observatory's Shane 3-meter telescope has been upgraded with a new infrared instrument (ShARCS - Shane Adaptive optics infraRed Camera and Spectrograph) and dual-deformable mirror adaptive optics (AO) system (ShaneAO). We present first-light measurements of imaging sensitivity in the Ks band. We compare mea- sured results to predicted signal-to-noise ratio and magnitude limits from modeling the emissivity and throughput of ShaneAO and ShARCS. The model was validated by comparing its results to the Keck telescope adaptive optics system model and then by estimating the sky background and limiting magnitudes for IRCAL, the pre- vious infra-red detector on the Shane telescope, and comparing to measured, published results. We predict that the ShaneAO system will measure lower sky backgrounds and achieve 20% higher throughput across the JHK bands despite having more optical surfaces than the current system. It will enable imaging of fainter objects (by 1-2 magnitudes) and will be faster to reach a fiducial signal-to-noise ratio by a factor of 10-13. We highlight the improvements in performance over the previous AO system and its camera, IRCAL.
We measure the long-term systematic component of the astrometric error in the GeMS MCAO system as a function of field radius and Ks magnitude. The experiment uses two epochs of observations of NGC 1851 separated by one month. The systematic component is estimated for each of three field of view cases (15'' radius, 30'' radius, and full field) and each of three distortion correction schemes: 8 DOF/chip + local distortion correction (LDC), 8 DOF/chip with no LDC, and 4 DOF/chip with no LDC. For bright, unsaturated stars with 13 < Ks < 16, the systematic component is < 0.2, 0.3, and 0.4 mas, respectively, for the 15'' radius, 30'' radius, and full field cases, provided that an 8 DOF/chip distortion correction with LDC (for the full-field case) is used to correct distortions. An 8 DOF/chip distortion-correction model always outperforms a 4 DOF/chip model, at all field positions and magnitudes and for all field-of-view cases, indicating the presence of high-order distortion changes. Given the order of the models needed to correct these distortions (~8 DOF/chip or 32 degrees of freedom total), it is expected that at least 25 stars per square arcminute would be needed to keep systematic errors at less than 0.3 milliarcseconds for multi-year programs. We also estimate the short-term astrometric precision of the newly upgraded Shane AO system with undithered M92 observations. Using a 6-parameter linear transformation to register images, the system delivers ~0.3 mas astrometric error over short-term observations of 2-3 minutes.
The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) is a facility extreme-AO high-contrast instrument – optimized solely for study of faint companions – on the Gemini telescope. It combines a high-order MEMS AO system (1493 active actuators), an apodized pupil Lyot coronagraph, a high-accuracy IR post-coronagraph wavefront sensor, and a near-infrared integral field spectrograph. GPI incorporates several other novel features such as ultra-high quality optics, a spatially-filtered wavefront sensor, and new calibration techniques. GPI had first light in November 2013. This paper presnets results of first-light and performance verification and optimization and shows early science results including extrasolar planet spectra and polarimetric detection of the HR4696A disk. GPI is now achieving contrasts approaching 10-6 at 0.5” in 30 minute exposures.
The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) entered on-sky commissioning phase, and had its First Light at the Gemini South telescope in November 2013. Meanwhile, the fast loops for atmospheric correction of the Extreme Adaptive Optics (XAO) system have been closed on many dozen stars at different magnitudes (I=4-8), elevation angles and a variety of seeing conditions, and a stable loop performance was achieved from the beginning. Ultimate contrast performance requires a very low residual wavefront error (design goal 60 nm RMS), and optimization of the planet finding instrument on different ends has just begun to deepen and widen its dark hole region. Laboratory raw contrast benchmarks are in the order of 10-6 or smaller. In the telescope environment and in standard operations new challenges are faced (changing gravity, temperature, vibrations) that are tackled by a variety of techniques such as Kalman filtering, open-loop models to keep alignment to within 5 mas, speckle nulling, and a calibration unit (CAL). The CAL unit was especially designed by the Jet Propulsion Laboratory to control slowly varying wavefront errors at the focal plane of the apodized Lyot coronagraph by the means of two wavefront sensors: 1) a 7x7 low order Shack-Hartmann SH wavefront sensor (LOWFS), and 2) a special Mach-Zehnder interferometer for mid-order spatial frequencies (HOWFS) - atypical in that the beam is split in the focal plane via a pinhole but recombined in the pupil plane with a beamsplitter. The original design goal aimed for sensing and correcting on a level of a few nm which is extremely challenging in a telescope environment. This paper focuses on non-common path low order wavefront correction as achieved through the CAL unit on sky. We will present the obtained results as well as explain challenges that we are facing.
Deformable mirrors with very high order correction generally have smaller dynamic range of motion than what is required to correct seeing over large aperture telescopes. As a result, systems will need to have an architecture that employs two deformable mirrors in series, one for the low-order but large excursion parts of the wavefront and one for the finer and smaller excursion components. The closed-loop control challenge is to a) keep the overall system stable, b) avoid the two mirrors using control energy to cancel each others correction, c) resolve actuator saturations stably, d) assure that on average the mirrors are each correcting their assigned region of spatial frequency space. We present the control architecture and techniques for assuring that it is linear and stable according to the above criteria. We derived the analytic forms for stability and performance and show results from simulations and on-sky testing using the new ShaneAO system on the Lick 3-meter telescope.
Fluorides are useful low-index materials that can be used to enhance reflectivity of over-coated metallic films. In particular, YF3 has been suggested as a useful low-stress low-index material in the IR where film layers must be thicker, and it has also been found to enhance durability in silver-based mirrors. However, if these mirrors need to be stripped for recoating, care must be taken with the stripping process to avoid damaging a silica-based substrate through production of hydrofluoric acid. We present data that such damage can occur, and discuss empirically-derived alternative stripping processes in place of the normal acid-based approach to mitigate the danger.
We describe the design and first-light early science performance of the Shane Adaptive optics infraRed Camera- Spectrograph (ShARCS) on Lick Observatory’s 3-m Shane telescope. Designed to work with the new ShaneAO adaptive optics system, ShARCS is capable of high-efficiency, diffraction-limited imaging and low-dispersion grism spectroscopy in J, H, and K-bands. ShARCS uses a HAWAII-2RG infrared detector, giving high quantum efficiency (<80%) and Nyquist sampling the diffraction limit in all three wavelength bands. The ShARCS instrument is also equipped for linear polarimetry and is sensitive down to 650 nm to support future visible-light adaptive optics capability. We report on the early science data taken during commissioning.
A Cassegrain mounted adaptive optics instrument presents unique challenges for opto-mechanical design. The flexure and temperature tolerances for stability are tighter than those of seeing limited instruments. This criteria requires particular attention to material properties and mounting techniques. This paper addresses the mechanical designs developed to meet the optical functional requirements. One of the key considerations was to have gravitational deformations, which vary with telescope orientation, stay within the optical error budget, or ensure that we can compensate with a steering mirror by maintaining predictable elastic behavior. Here we look at several cases where deformation is predicted with finite element analysis and Hertzian deformation analysis and also tested. Techniques used to address thermal deformation compensation without the use of low CTE materials will also be discussed.
The identification and prediction of time-varying wavefront errors in adaptive optics (AO) systems promises fainter limiting
guide star magnitudes and improved temporal bandwidth errors. In a new UCSC-LLNL collaboration, we aim to demonstrate
the power of predictive Fourier controllers for AO in the laboratory and on-sky. We have used the Fourier Wind
Identification technique to measure wind velocities at several telescopes, and now have demonstrated the identification of
frozen flow turbulence with a translating phase screen on a laboratory test bench.
Here, we present identification of the wind direction and velocity using telemetry data from a laboratory testbed simulating
the ShaneAO system geometry. Our wind identification system uses a Fourier decomposition technique to identify
the correlated movement of the atmosphere from WFS telemetry data, which are then used to construct a Kalman filter for
real-time operation. We demonstrate the use of an LQG controller with the ShaneAO system architecture, and show that
the effects of frozen flow turbulence can be easily identified in laboratory telemetry. We describe the adaptations made
to the LQG controller to integrate it into the dual-DM architecture of the ShaneAO system, and demonstrate that these
modifications produce stable and well-understood AO correction in the laboratory.
A new high-order adaptive optics system is now being commissioned at the Lick Observatory Shane 3-meter telescope in California. This system uses a high return efficiency sodium beacon and a combination of low and high-order deformable mirrors to achieve diffraction-limited imaging over a wide spectrum of infrared science wavelengths covering 0.8 to 2.2 microns. We present the design performance goals and the first on-sky test results. We discuss several innovations that make this system a pathfinder for next generation AO systems. These include a unique woofer-tweeter control that provides full dynamic range correction from tip/tilt to 16 cycles, variable pupil sampling wavefront sensor, new enhanced silver coatings developed at UC Observatories that improve science and LGS throughput, and tight mechanical rigidity that enables a multi-hour diffraction-limited exposure in LGS mode for faint object spectroscopy science.
By inserting a MEMS deformable mirror-based adaptive optics system into the beam transfer optics of the Shane 3-meter telescope at Mt. Hamilton, we actively controlled the wavefront of the outgoing sodium laser guidestar beam. It was possible to show that a purposefully aberrated beam resulted in poorer performance of the Adaptive Optics system located behind the primary, though bad seeing conditions prevented us from improving the system’s performance over its nominal state. A silver-coated Iris AO deformable mirror was subjected to approximately 9.5 hours of exposure to a sodium laser guidestar of 3.5 Watts average output power and showed no signs of permanent damage or degradation in performance. Future applications of the uplink-AO system for correcting atmospheric turbulence and in generating custom laser guidestar asterisms are also discussed.
The Gemini Planet Imager instrument's adaptive optics (AO) subsystem was designed specifically to facilitate high-contrast imaging. It features several new technologies, including computationally efficient wavefront reconstruction with the Fourier transform, modal gain optimization every 8 seconds, and the spatially filtered wavefront sensor. It also uses a Linear-Quadratic-Gaussian (LQG) controller (aka Kalman filter) for both pointing and focus. We present on-sky performance results from verification and commissioning runs from December 2013 through May 2014. The efficient reconstruction and modal gain optimization are working as designed. The LQG controllers effectively notch out vibrations. The spatial filter can remove aliases, but we typically use it oversized by about 60% due to stability problems.
We evaluate the performance of a woofer-tweeter controller architecture for the new 3-meter Shane Telescope (Lick Observatory) laser guidestar adaptive optics (AO) system. Low order, high stroke phase correction is performed using the normal modal basis set of the Alpao woofer deformable mirror (DM). Since the woofer and tweeter DMs share the same wavefront sensor, the projected woofer phase correction is offloaded from the high-order, low stroke phase aberrations corrected by the tweeter DM. This ensures the deformable mirrors complementarily correct the input phase disturbance and minimizes likelihood of the tweeter actuators saturating. Preliminary analysis of on-sky closed-loop deformable mirror telemetry data from currently operating AO systems at Mt. Hamilton, as well as statistically accurate Kolmogorov phase screens, indicate that correction of up to 34 woofer modes results in all tweeter actuators remaining within their stroke limit.
The Gemini Planet Imager is a next-generation instrument for the direct detection and characterization of young warm exoplanets, designed to be an order of magnitude more sensitive than existing facilities. It combines a 1700-actuator adaptive optics system, an apodized-pupil Lyot coronagraph, a precision interferometric infrared wavefront sensor, and a integral field spectrograph. All hardware and software subsystems are now complete and undergoing integration and test at UC Santa Cruz. We will present test results on each subsystem and the results of end-to-end testing. In laboratory testing, GPI has achieved a raw contrast (without post-processing) of 10-6 5σ at 0.4”, and with multiwavelength speckle suppression, 2x10-7 at the same separation.
The Lick Observatory 3-meter telescope has a history of serving as a testbed for innovative adaptive optics techniques.
In 1996, it became one of the first astronomical observatories to employ laser guide star (LGS) adaptive optics as a
facility instrument available to the astronomy community. Work on a second-generation LGS adaptive optics system,
ShaneAO, is well underway, with plans to deploy on telescope in 2013. In this paper we discuss key design features and
implementation plans for the ShaneAO adaptive optics system. Once again, the Shane 3-m will host a number of new
techniques and technologies vital to the development of future adaptive optics systems on larger telescopes. Included is a
woofer-tweeter based wavefront correction system incorporating a voice-coil actuated, low spatial and temporal
bandwidth, high stroke deformable mirror in conjunction with a high order, high bandwidth MEMs deformable mirror.
The existing dye laser, in operation since 1996, will be replaced with a fiber laser recently developed at Lawrence
Livermore National Laboratories. The system will also incorporate a high-sensitivity, high bandwidth wavefront sensor
camera. Enhanced IR performance will be achieved by replacing the existing PICNIC infrared array with an Hawaii
2RG. The updated ShaneAO system will provide opportunities to test predictive control algorithms for adaptive optics.
Capabilities for astronomical spectroscopy, polarimetry, and visible-light adaptive optical astronomy will be supported.
We explore the extension of predictive control techniques to multi-guide star, multi-layer tomographic wavefront
measurement systems using a shift-and-average correction scheme that incorporates wind velocity and direction. In
addition to reducing temporal error budget terms, there are potentially additional benefits for tomographic AO systems;
the combination of wind velocity information and phase height information from multiple guide stars breaks inherent
degeneracies in volumetric tomographic reconstruction, producing a reduction in the geometric tomographic error. In a
tomographic simulation of an 8-meter telescope with 3 laser guide stars over 2 arcminute diameter, we find that tracking
organized wind motion as it flows into metapupil regions sampled by only one guide star improves layer estimates
beyond the guide star radius, allowing for an expansion of the field of view. For this case, we demonstrate improvement
of layer phase estimates of 3% to 12%, translating into potential gains in the MOAO field of regard area of up to 40%.
The majority of the benefits occur in regions of the metapupil sampled by only 1-2 LGS's downwind at high altitudes.
We present a summary update of sodium laser guidestar technology, including an overview of the results from a series of
Laser Guidestar Workshops hosted by the Center for Adaptive Optics over the past few years. There has been
considerable advancement in the understanding of laser light interaction with mesospheric sodium which has an impact
on the choice of laser systems where the objective is to produce the best wavefront measurement with a minimum of
laser power and expense. We will also summarize our efforts on an NSF funded MRI program to build a high-Strehl AO
system for imaging and spectroscopy covering the near IR science bands from 0.9 to 2.2 micron wavelength. The system
includes a new 10 watt pulsed fiber laser developed by Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory tuned in spectral and
pulse format for optimum sodium return.
Long pulse length sodium laser guide stars (LGS) are useful because they allow for Rayleigh blanking and fratricide
avoidance in multiple LGS systems. Bloch equation simulations of sodium-light interactions in Mathematica show that
certain spectral formats and pulse lengths, on the order of 30 microseconds, with high duty cycles (20-50%) should be
able to achieve photon returns within 10% of what is seen from continuous wave (CW) excitation. In this work, we
investigate the time dependent characteristics of sodium fluorescence, and find the optimal format for the new LGS that
will be part of the upgraded AO system on the Shane 3 Meter telescope at Mt. Hamilton. Results of this analysis are
discussed along with their general applicability to other LGS systems. The potential benefits of uplink correction are also considered.
High-contrast imaging is a growing observational technique aimed at discovering and characterizing extrasolar planets. The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) is designed to achieve contrast ratios of 10-6 - 10-7 and requires unprecedented wavefront correction and coronagraphic control of diffraction. G PI is a facility instrument now undergoing integration and testing and is scheduled for first light on the 8-m Gemini South telescope towards the end of 2012. In this paper, we focus on the wavefront sensing and correction aspects of the instrument. To measure the wavefront, GPI combines a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor and a high-accuracy infrared interferometric wavefront calibration system. The Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor uses 1700 subapertures to precisely sample the wavefront at 1.5 kHz and features a spatial filter to prevent aliasing. The wavefront calibration system measures the slower temporal frequency errors as well as non-common path aberrations. The wavefront correction is performed using a two-stage adaptive optics system employing a 9x9 piezoelectric deformable mirror and a 43x43 actuators MEMS deformable mirror operating in a woofer-tweeter configuration. Finally, an image sharpening technique is used to further increase the contrast of the final image. In this paper, we describe the three wavefront sensing methods and how we combine their respective information to achieve the best possible contrast.
Micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) technology can provide for deformable mirrors (DMs) with excellent
performance within a favorable economy of scale. Large MEMS-based astronomical adaptive optics (AO) systems
such as the Gemini Planet Imager are coming on-line soon. As MEMS DM end-users, we discuss our decade of
practice with the micromirrors, from inspecting and characterizing devices to evaluating their performance in
the lab. We also show MEMS wavefront correction on-sky with the "Villages" AO system on a 1-m telescope,
including open-loop control and visible-light imaging. Our work demonstrates the maturity of MEMS technology
for astronomical adaptive optics.
Iris AO has been developing dielectric-coated segmented MEMS deformable mirrors (DM) for use in laser applications
that range from 355-1540 nm. In order to mitigate deformation from residual stress in the thick dielectric coatings, a
stress-compensation layer has been added to the underside if the DM segments. This paper describes fabrication results
of DMs with high reflectance dielectric coatings for 532 nm, 1064 nm, and 1540 nm. Additionally, a DM with a 532 nm
coating has been tested with a 2 W, 532 nm CW laser. Laser testing shows the DM can handle 300 W/cm2 with off-theshelf
packaging. Projections show that with good heat sinking, the same DM can handle laser power densities of
2800 W/cm2. The coatings showed no signs of damage after exposure to a w0=25 μm beam with a power density of
205 kW/cm2 for 105 minutes at the center of a segment and at segment edges exposed to 180 kW/cm2 for 45 minutes.
Exoplanet imaging is driving a race to higher contrast imaging, both from earth and from space. Next-generation
instruments such as the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) and SPHERE are designed to achieve contrast ratios of
10-6 - 10-7 this requires very good wavefront correction and coronagraphic control of diffraction. GPI is a
facility instrument, now in integration and test, with first light on the 8-m Gemini South telescope expected
by the middle of 2012. It combines a 1700 subaperture AO system using a MEMS deformable mirror, an
apodized-pupil Lyot coronagraph, a high-accuracy IR interferometric wavefront calibration system, and a nearinfrared
integral field spectrograph to allow detection and characterization of self-luminous extrasolar planets
at planet/star contrast ratios of 10-7. In this paper we will discuss the status of the integration and test now
taking place at the University of Santa Cruz California.
We demonstrated the used of an adaptive optic system in biological imaging to improve the imaging characteristics of a
wide field microscope. A crimson red fluorescent bead emitting light at 650 nm was used together with a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor and deformable mirror to compensate for the aberrations introduce by a Drosophila embryo.
The measurement and correction at one wavelength improves the resolving power at a different wavelength, enabling the
structure of the sample to be resolved (510 nm). The use of the crimson beads allow for less photobleaching to be done
to the science object of the embryo, in this case our GFP model (green fluorescent beads), and allows for the science
object and wavefront reference to be spectrally separated. The spectral separation allows for single points sources to be
used for wavefront measurements, which is a necessary condition for the Shack-Hartmann Wavefront sensor operation.
We present our plans for a second-generation laser guide star adaptive optics system for the 3-meter Shane Telescope at
Lick Observatory. The Shane hosted the first groundbreaking experiments in sodium laser guidestar adaptive optics, with
observations starting in 1996, and provides for regular astronomical science observing to this day. The replacement new
generation system will incorporate many of the recent advancements in AO technology and lessons learned from
laboratory and on-sky experiments in order to provide higher Strehl, higher sensitivity, and greater wavelength coverage
for astronomers. The proposed system uses a 32x32 actuator MEMS deformable mirror, along with higher sensitivity
wavefront sensor, and a new fiber laser developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory. Our experiences from
the Villages project, reported at earlier Photonics West meetings, provide much of the basis for the new system design.
Continuous-facesheet and segmented Boston Micromachines Corporations' (BMC) Micro-Electrical Mechanical Systems (MEMS) Deformable Mirrors (DM) have been tested for their response to high-power visible-wavelength laser light. The deformable mirrors, coated with either protected silver or bare aluminum, were subjected to a maximum of 2 Watt laser-light at a wavelength of 532 nanometers. The laser light was incident on a ~ 3.5×3.5 cm area for time periods from minutes to 7 continuous hours. Spot heating from the laser-light is measured to induce a local bulge in the surface of each DM. For the aluminum-coated continuous facesheet DM, the induced spot heating changes the surface figure by 16 nm rms. The silver-coated
continuous-facesheet and segmented (spatial light modulator) DMs experience a 6 and 8 nm surface rms change in surface quality with the laser at 2 Watts. For spatial frequencies less than the actuator spacing (300 mm), the laser induced surface bulge is shown to be removable, as the DMs continued to be fully functional during and after their exposure. Over the full 10 mm aperture one could expect the same results with a 15 Watt laser guide star (LGS). These results are very promising for use of the MEMS DM to pre-correct the outgoing laser light in the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics' (LAO) laser uplink application.
The ability to simulate atmospheric turbulence is a crucial part of enabling adaptive optics
technology to function and evolve. We report a new technique of creating phase plates
developed at the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (LAO) which involves the application of clear
acrylic paint onto a transparent substrate. Results of interferometric characterization of these
plates is described and compared to Kolmolgorov statistics. These plates have been successfully
used in the Multi-Conjugate Adaptive Optics (MCAO) testbed and as part of the Villages
(Visible Light Laser Guidestar Experiments) calibration system.
The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI), currently under construction for the 8-m Gemini South telescope, is a high contrast adaptive
optics instrument intended for direct imaging of extrasolar planets and circumstellar disks. GPI will study circumstellar
disks using the polarization of disk-scattered starlight. These observations will be obtained using a novel 'integral field
polarimetry' mode, in which the dispersing prism of GPI's integral field spectrograph is replaced by a Wollaston prism,
providing simultaneous dual polarimetry for each position in the field of view. By splitting polarizations only after the instrument's
lenslet array, this design minimizes wavefront differences between the polarization channels, providing optimal
contrast for circumstellar dust. A rotating achromatic waveplate provides modulation. End-to-end numerical modeling
indicates that GPI will be sensitive to scattered light from debris disks significantly fainter than can currently be imaged.
We discuss the tradeoffs and design decisions for GPI polarimetry, describe the calibration and reduction procedures, and
present the current status of the instrument. First light is planned for 2011.
At the University of California's Lick Observatory, we have implemented an on-sky testbed for next-generation
adaptive optics (AO) technologies. The Visible-Light Laser Guidestar Experiments instrument (ViLLaGEs)
includes visible-light AO, a micro-electro-mechanical-systems (MEMS) deformable mirror, and open-loop control
of said MEMS on the 1-meter Nickel telescope at Mt. Hamilton. (Open-loop in this sense refers to the MEMS
being separated optically from the wavefront sensing path; the MEMS is still included in the control loop.) Future
upgrades include predictive control with wind estimation and pyramid wavefront sensing. Our unique optical
layout allows the wavefronts along the open- and closed-loop paths to be measured simultaneously, facilitating
comparison between the two control methods. In this paper we evaluate the performance of ViLLaGEs in openand
closed-loop control, finding that both control methods give equivalent Strehl ratios of up to ~ 7% in I-band
and similar rejection of temporal power. Therefore, we find that open-loop control of MEMS on-sky is as effective
as closed-loop control. Furthermore, after operating the system for three years, we find MEMS technology to
function well in the observatory environment. We construct an error budget for the system, accounting for 130
nm of wavefront error out of 190 nm error in the science-camera PSFs. We find that the dominant known term
is internal static error, and that the known contributions to the error budget from open-loop control (MEMS
model, position repeatability, hysteresis, and WFS linearity) are negligible.
We present a method for online estimation and prediction of wavefront distortions caused by two independent
layers of frozen flow turbulence. The key to this algorithm is a fast, gradient-based estimator that uses optical
flow techniques to extract the bulk velocity vectors of the two wind layers from three consecutive measurements
of their combined wavefront. Once these velocity vectors are known, the phase aberrations resulting from the
two-layer atmosphere can be predicted at any future time using a linear combination of shifted wavefronts. This
allows calculation of a deformable mirror correction that compensates for the time delay errors in the control
loop. Predictive control will be especially beneficial for visible light and high-contrast astronomical adaptive
optics as well as for any adaptive optics system whose performance suffers due to time delay errors. A multilayer
approach to predictive control is necessary since most observing sites have multi-layer atmospheres. The
spatial domain method that we present is attractive because it uses all spatial frequency components of the
wavefront simultaneously to find a global wind model. Its ability to update the wind velocity estimate at each
control cycle makes it sensitive to changes in the wind on the order of tens of milliseconds. Our simulations
show a potential Strehl increase from 0.45 to 0.65 for visible-light adaptive optics in low-noise, moderate-wind
conditions with two frozen-flow wind layers and a strong static layer.
We report on the preliminary design of W.M. Keck Observatory's (WMKO's) next-generation adaptive optics (NGAO)
facility. This facility is designed to address key science questions including understanding the formation and evolution
of today's galaxies, measuring dark matter in our galaxy and beyond, testing the theory of general relativity in the
Galactic Center, understanding the formation of planetary systems around nearby stars, and exploring the origins of our
own solar system. The requirements derived from these science questions have resulted in NGAO being designed to
have near diffraction-limited performance in the near-IR (K-Strehl ~ 80%) over narrow fields (< 30" diameter) with
modest correction down to ~ 700 nm, high sky coverage, improved sensitivity and contrast and improved photometric
and astrometric accuracy. The resultant key design features include multi-laser tomography to measure the wavefront
and correct for the cone effect, open loop AO-corrected near-IR
tip-tilt sensors with MEMS deformable mirrors (DMs)
for high sky coverage, a high order MEMS DM for the correction of atmospheric and telescope static errors to support
high Strehls and high contrast companion sensitivity, point spread function (PSF) calibration to benefit quantitative
astronomy, a cooled science path to reduce thermal background, and a high-efficiency science instrument providing
imaging and integral field spectroscopy.
KEYWORDS: Tomography, Real-time computing, Cameras, Adaptive optics, Control systems, Stars, Wavefronts, Infrared cameras, Field programmable gate arrays, Process control
The next generation adaptive optics systems for large telescopes will be complex systems far larger, more complex, and
with higher performance than any currently installed. This requires adopting new algorithms, technologies, and
architectures. The Keck next generation adaptive optics (NGAO) system requires real-time wavefront reconstruction
and tomography given input from 7 laser and 3 natural guide stars. Requirements include 2 KHz atmospheric sampling,
tomographic atmosphere estimation, and control for 5 deformable mirrors. We take advantage of the algorithms'
massive parallelism and realize it on a massive array of FPGAs, GPUs, and multi-core CPUs. This paper presents the
current design and analysis of the NGAO system.
The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) high-contrast adaptive optics system, which is currently under construction
for Gemini South, has an IFS as its science instrument. This paper describes the data reduction pipeline of the
GPI science instrument. Written in IDL, with a modular architecture, this pipeline reduces an ensemble of highcontrast
spectroscopic or polarimetric raw science images and calibration data into a final dataset ready for
scientific analysis. It includes speckle suppression techniques such as angular and spectral differential imaging
that are necessary to achieve extreme contrast performances for which the instrument is designed. This paper
presents also raw GPI IFS simulated data developed to test the pipeline.
A critical goal in the next decade is to develop techniques that will extend Adaptive Optics correction to visible
wavelengths on Extremely Large Telescopes (ELTs). We demonstrate in the laboratory the highly accurate atmospheric
tomography necessary to defeat the cone effect on ELTs, an essential milestone on the path to this capability. We
simulate a high-order Laser Tomographic AO System for a 30-meter telescope with the LTAO/MOAO testbed at UCSC.
Eight Sodium Laser Guide Stars (LGSs) are sensed by 99x99 Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors over 75". The AO
system is diffraction-limited at a science wavelength of 800 nm
(S ~ 6-9%) over a field of regard of 20" diameter. Openloop
WFS systematic error is observed to be proportional to the total input atmospheric disturbance and is nearly the
dominant error budget term (81 nm RMS), exceeded only by tomographic wavefront estimation error (92 nm RMS).
The total residual wavefront error for this experiment is comparable to that expected for wide-field tomographic adaptive
optics systems of similar wavefront sensor order and LGS constellation geometry planned for Extremely Large
Telescopes.
High contrast imaging is an ongoing theme in the domain of astronomy, both for ground-based and space-based
telescopes. Achieving 106 - 107 contrasts expected with GPI and SPHERE or 1010 contrast for space projects,
requires extreme wavefront correction as well as good coronagraphic systems. With the testbed located at the
Laboratory of Adaptive Optics in Santa Cruz, we statically correct the wavefront to 0.5 nm in band and reach
contrast of a few 107 with an Apodized Lyot Coronagraph (APLC). The Electric Field Conjugation (EFC) allows
us to further improve on this performance. EFC is a formalism of the correction problem that computes the
actuator commands for the deformable mirror (DM) to correct for both amplitude and phase in a pre-defined
region in the final image plane. In order to take into account
non-common-path errors and potential amplitude
aberrations, the proper actuator commands are computed using an image plane-based DM diversity by means of
reconstructing the complex electric field. Already successfully tested for space-based telescopes, we here attempt
to adapt this method to ground-based observations, using the EFC high contrast solution to record new reference
centroids for a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor, which in turn can be used to recreate the far-field image. This
paper shows results of this first use of the EFC method with an APLC. We achieved 4.108 contrast on a [4-9]
λ/d square region. We also show that it can be applied to ground based adaptive optics, using Shack-Hartmann
wavefront sensors.
The future of adaptive optics includes laser guide stars. While they are a great solution to sky coverage, they
do introduce additional errors in the adaptive optics system. In particular, because of the finite thickness of
the sodium layer, there is reduced centroiding accuracy due to elongated spots in the wavefront sensor. These
become even more pronounced on large telescope apertures. In this paper we focus on the performance of a
Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor for 30m-plus large aperture telescopes studying the consequences of both the
decrease in signal to noise ratio due to the spot elongation and the variations of the sodium density variations in
the mesosphere. We incorporate real on-sky measurements of the return from the sodium layer using images of
the laser guide star taken at Lick Observatory and simulate the expected wavefront reconstruction performance
in the case of a Thirty Meter Telescope. Using this ensemble of data, we compare performance for various
Hartmann centroiding methods, including correlation and weighted least square algorithms.
The Keck Next Generation Adaptive Optics (KNGAO) system promises to yield high-Strehl observations over a
wide range of science wavelengths from the optical through the infrared. We describe the algorithms proposed for a
Real-Time Controller (RTC) implemented in a massive parallel processor environment. These algorithms take
advantage of the Fourier domain to speed up processing and ensure minimum variance control that incorporates
prior as well as current data. We present the unique approach to the design that enables such a complex tomography
processor to scale more favorably with telescope aperture size than the more traditional RTC approaches.
Adaptive optics (AO) improves the quality of astronomical imaging systems by using real time measurement of the
turbulent medium in the optical path using a guide star (natural or artificial) as a point source reference beacon [1]. AO
has also been applied to vision science to improve the view of the human eye. This paper will address our current
research focused on the improvement of fluorescent microscopy for biological imaging utilizing current AO technology.
A Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (SHWS) is used to measure the aberration introduced by a Drosophila
Melanogaster embryo with an implanted 1 micron fluorescent bead that serves as a point source reference beacon.
Previous measurements of the wavefront aberrations have found an average peak-to-valley and root-mean-square (RMS)
wavefront error of 0.77 micrometers and 0.15 micrometers, respectively. Measurements of the Zernike coefficients
indicated that the correction of the first 14 Zernike coefficients is sufficient to correct the aberrations we measured. Here
we show that a MEMS deformable mirror with 3.5 microns of stroke and 140 actuators is sufficient to correct these
aberrations. The design, assembly and initial results for the use of a MEMS deformable mirror, SHWS and implanted
fluorescent reference beacon for wavefront correction are discussed.
We present an update on the Visible Light Laser Guidestar Experiments ViLLaGEs) taking place at the Lick
Observatory. The goal of phase one of these experiments is to demonstrate the practical feasibility of using MEMS
deformable mirrors in astronomical adaptive optics systems, including the use of open-loop wavefront sensing and
control. The goal of phase two is to incorporate a laser guide star and demonstrate laser up-link correction, again using a
MEMS deformable mirror running in open-loop. The overall set of experiments is designed to demonstrate these and
various other new concepts leading to feasible and low-cost laser guidestar adaptive optics that can be used for science
observing in the visible wavelength bands.
We have tested an aluminum-coated Iris AO Micro-Electrical Mechanical System (MEMS) segmented Deformable Mirror (DM) for its behavior in the presence of high energy 532 nm laser light. The DM was subject to several tests in which the laser power and the duration of its incidence was varied. The DM experienced an irradiance of 94.5 W cm-2 at the maximum laser power of 2 W. A slight permanent reduction in the amount of bow in each segment was observed. This is most likely due to annealing. The mirror remained fully functional during and after the tests. Measurements of the mirror's temporal stability and position repeatability were performed before the laser test. We found a 1.28 nm rms variation in the bow of segments that is highly correlated over the 16 minute test. The mirror's ability to return to its initial position was within the 1.34 nm rms instrument noise. These results are encouraging for applications such as the laser uplink correction of the Visible Light Laser Guidestar Experiment (Villages) and future multi-Laser Guidestar systems (LGS).
The Pupil-mapping Exoplanet Coronagraphic Observer (PECO) mission concept uses a coronagraphic 1.4-m
space-based telescope to both image and characterize extra-solar planetary systems at optical wavelengths.
PECO delivers 10-10 contrast at 2 λ/D separation (0.15") using a high-performance Phase-Induced Amplitude
Apodization (PIAA) coronagraph which remaps the telescope pupil and uses nearly all of the light coming into
the aperture. For exoplanet characterization, PECO acquires narrow field images simultaneously in 16 spectral
bands over wavelengths from 0.4 to 0.9 μm, utilizing all available photons for maximum wavefront sensing and
sensitivity for imaging and spectroscopy. The optical design is optimized for simultaneous low-resolution spectral
characterization of both planets and dust disks using a moderate-sized telescope. PECO will image the habitable
zones of about 20 known F, G, K stars at a spectral resolution of R≈15 with sensitivity sufficient to detect
and characterize Earth-like planets and to map dust disks to within a fraction of our own zodiacal dust cloud
brightness. The PIAA coronagraph adopted for PECO reduces the required telescope diameter by a factor of two
compared with other coronagraph approaches that were considered for Terrestrial Planet Finder Coronagraph
Flight Baseline 1, and would therefore also be highly valuable for larger telescope diameters. We report on
ongoing laboratory activities to develop and mature key PECO technologies, as well as detailed analysis aimed
at verifying PECO's wavefront and pointing stability requirement can be met without requiring development of
new technologies.
Adaptive optics (AO) improves the quality of astronomical imaging systems by using real time measurement of the
turbulent medium in the optical path using a guide star (natural or artificial) as a point source reference beacon. AO has
also been applied to vision science to improve the current view of the human eye. This paper will address our current
research focused on the improvement of fluorescent microscopy for biological imaging utilizing current AO technology.
A Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (SHWS) was used to measure the aberration introduced by a Drosophila Melanogaster embryo with an implanted 1 micron fluorescent bead that serves as a point source reference beacon. The measurements show an average peak-to-valley and root-mean-square (RMS) wavefront error of 0.77 micrometers and
0.15 micrometers, respectively. The Zernike coefficients have been measured for these aberrations which indicate that
the correction of the first 14 Zernike coefficients should be sufficient to correct the aberrations we have obtained. These
results support the utilization of SHWS for biological imaging applications and that a MEMS deformable mirror with 1 micron of stroke and 100 actuators will be sufficient to correct these aberrations. The design, assembly and initial results for the use of a MEMS deformable mirror, SHWS and implanted fluorescent reference beacon for wavefront correction will also be discussed.
MEMS deformable mirrors are showing great promise for use in astronomical adaptive optics systems. Recent
experiments at a Lick Observatory 1-meter telescope have demonstrated a 144 actuator device in a visible
wavelength AO imager. MEMS devices with thousands of actuators could be used for high-Strehl and visible
wavelength AO systems on today's large-aperture telescopes (8-10 meters) and future giant (30 meter) telescopes. In
this paper we present several design concepts for multiple-mirror AO systems and discuss our efforts at the
Laboratory for Adaptive Optics to develop components and test system concepts for these systems.
We present preliminary findings on the characteristic behavior and initial performance of Boston Micromachine
Corporations' (BMC) 4096-actuator micro-electrical mechanical systems (MEMS) deformable mirror (DM). This
device is examined for its application in the Gemini Planet Imager high-contrast adaptive optics (AO) system. It is
also being considered for use in next generation AO systems on the extremely large telescopes. Testing of this device
has been in progress at the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (LAO) on the Extreme Adaptive Optics (ExAO) testbed
in experiments designed to qualify performance for imaging extrasolar planets. In this paper we present first test
results including actuator stroke (3.0 microns at 200 V), individual actuator RMS surface (10.3 nm surface), actuator
yield for two DM arrays (94.4% and 98.8%), actuator crosstalk (no more than 32%), stroke at the highest spatial
frequency (1.2 nm surface), and sub-nanometer closed loop flattening capabilities over a 30-actuator diameter.
W. M. Keck Observatory (WMKO) is currently engaged in the design of a powerful new Adaptive Optics (AO) science
capability providing precision correction in the near-IR, good correction in the visible, and faint object multiplexed
integral field spectroscopy. Improved sensitivity will result from significantly higher Strehl ratios over narrow fields (<
30" diameter) and from lower backgrounds. Quantitative astronomy will benefit from improved PSF stability and
knowledge. Strehl ratios of 15 to 25% are expected at wavelengths as short as 750 nm. A multi-object AO approach
will be taken for the correction of multiple science targets over modest fields of regard (< 2' diameter) and to achieve
high sky coverage using AO compensated near-IR tip/tilt sensing. In this paper we present the conceptual design for this
system including discussion of the requirements, system architecture, key design features, performance predictions and
implementation plans.
Visible Light Laser Guidestar Experiments (ViLLaGEs) is a new Micro-Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS)
based visible-wavelength adaptive optics (AO) testbed on the Nickel 1-meter telescope at Lick Observatory. Closed
loop Natural Guide Star (NGS) experiments were successfully carried out during engineering during the fall of
2007. This is a major evolutionary step, signaling the movement of AO technologies into visible light with a MEMS
mirror. With on-sky Strehls in I-band of greater than 20% during second light tests, the science possibilities have
become evident.
Described here is the advanced engineering used in the design and construction of the ViLLaGEs system, comparing
it to the LickAO infrared system, and a discussion of Nickel dome infrastructural improvements necessary for this
system. A significant portion of the engineering discussion revolves around the sizable effort that went towards
eliminating flexure. Then, we detail upgrades to ViLLaGEs to make it a facility class instrument. These upgrades
will focus on Nyquist sampling the diffraction limited point spread function during open loop operations,
motorization and automation for technician level alignments, adding dithering capabilities and changes for near
infrared science.
We present testbed results of the Apodized Pupil Lyot Coronagraph (APLC) at the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (LAO). This coronagraph is being built for the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI). The apodizer component is manufactured with a halftone technique using black chrome microdots on glass. Testing this APLC (like any other coronagraph) requires extremely good wavefront correction, which is obtained to the 1nm RMS level on the Extreme Adaptive Optics (ExAO) visible testbed of the Laboratory Adaptive optics (LAO) at the University of Santa Cruz.
With this testbed, we investigated the performance of the APLC coronagraph and more particularly the effect of the apodizer profile accuracy on the contrast.
We obtained the first image of a dark zone in a coronagraphic image with a MEMS deformable mirror. Finally, we compare the resulting contrast to predictions made with a wavefront propagation model of the testbed to understand the effects of phase and amplitude errors on the final contrast.
We have demonstrated MOAO-type atmospheric compensation on a 10 meter telescope at visible wavelengths with the
UCO/Lick MCAO/MOAO testbed in the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics at UCSC. We report Strehls of ~20% in R
band (658 nm) on-axis and Strehls of ~15% off-axis 25" for a 3D Mauna Kea-type atmosphere with r0 = 15 cm and &Tgr;0 =
3.5". We show that a tomographic MOAO approach with 5 LGS's in a 50" constellation is sufficient to realize good
correction in the visible. Two major improvements to the testbed realized this gain: (1) An upgrade to 64x64
subapertures across a 10 meter pupil (2) and a predictor-corrector wind model. We discuss limitations to wide-field
visible light AO on 8-10 meter class telescopes and stress that the tomographic error due to blind modes is frequently the
largest field-dependent error. We use a predictor-corrector wind model (Wiberg et al. 2006) to take advantage of windlayer
shearing in the atmosphere to reduce the tomographic error over a 50" diameter field. Depending on the validity of
the Taylor frozen flow model for individual layers in the real atmosphere, this approach could be more effective than
increasing the number of LGS's.
The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) is currently in production for the Gemini Telescope in Chile. This instrument
will directly image young jovian exoplanets, aided by a micro-electrical mechanical systems (MEMS) deformable
mirror (DM). Boston Micromachines MEMS mirrors operate thousands of actuators to provide a well-sampled
correction at high spatial frequencies. However, because MEMS stroke alone is insufficient to fully correct the
atmosphere in the near-IR on an 8-meter telescope, a dual-mirror system is planned for GPI: The MEMS is used
as a 'tweeter' to correct the higher spatial frequencies while a separate 'woofer' DM will be used to correct
the lower frequencies. During operation at GPI, any saturated actuators would scatter starlight into the dark
hole instead of allowing it to be removed coronagraphically; thus, stroke saturation on the MEMS is tolerated
only at the 5-sigma level. In the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics, we test the ability of the MEMS to counter
atmospheric turbulence. The MEMS shape is set to random iterations of woofer-corrected Kolmogorov phase
screens with varying woofer sizes. We find that, for r0 = 10 cm, saturation decreases from several percent
to a few tenths of a percent (∼3-sigma) when using a 100cm-pitch woofer. The MEMS we tested has 0.2 &mgr;m
inter-actuator stroke for a 200V-range. Nonetheless, saturation (when it occurs) appears to be due to low-order
peak-to-valley stroke even in the woofer-corrected case. Gemini characteristically has r0 = 15 cm, so future
work includes extrapolating to find where the 5-sigma saturation level occurs.
The Next Generation Adaptive Optics (NGAO) system will represent a considerable advancement for high resolution
astronomical imaging and spectroscopy at the W. M. Keck Observatory. The AO system will incorporate multiple laser
guidestar tomography to increase the corrected field of view and remove the cone effect inherent to single laser guide
star systems. The improvement will permit higher Strehl correction in the near-infrared and diffraction-limited correction
down to R band. A high actuator count micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) deformable mirror will provide the
on-axis wavefront correction to a number of instrument stations and additional MEMS devices will feed multiple
channels of a deployable integral-field spectrograph. In this paper we present the status of the AO system design and
describe its various operating modes.
High-contrast adaptive optics systems, such as those needed to image extrasolar planets, are known to require
excellent wavefront control and diffraction suppression. The Laboratory for Adaptive Optics at UC Santa Cruz is
investigating limits to high-contrast imaging in support of the Gemini Planet Imager. Previous contrast measurements
were made with a simple single-opening prolate spheroid shaped pupil that produced a limited region of
high-contrast, particularly when wavefront errors were corrected with the 1024-actuator Boston Micromachines
MEMS deformable mirror currently in use on the testbed. A more sophisticated shaped pupil is now being used
that has a much larger region of interest facilitating a better understanding of high-contrast measurements. In
particular we examine the effect of heat sources in the testbed on PSF stability. We find that rms image motion
scales as 0.02 &lgr;/D per watt when the heat source is near the pupil plane. As a result heat sources of greater
than 5 watts should be avoided near pupil planes for GPI. The safest place to introduce heat is near a focal
plane. Heat also can effect the standard deviation of the high-contrast region but in the final instrument other
sources of error should be more significant.
Astronomical adaptive optics (AO) systems are beginning to make extensive use of ~598 nm lasers projected onto the mesospheric sodium layer in order create artificial guide stars. This technique allows increased sky coverage with improved AO system performance. This approach is also dependent on the abundance and distribution of sodium atoms in the mesosphere and as a result present a unique set of difficulties not seen with natural stars. The sodium layer exhibits time dependent variations in density and altitude, and has a variable structure. The non-zero thickness and finite range of the sodium layer results in elongation of the LGS image due to perspective effects that are particularly significant for AO systems using Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors (SHFWS) on extremely large telescopes (ELTs) such as the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT). Both sodium layer variations and elongation will increase the error in the wavefront measurement. In order to understand these effects we have collected profiles of the sodium layer using off axis observations of a laser guide star at the Lick Observatory. In this paper, we will describe the analysis of these profiles and the implications of this analysis for the design of improved wavefront sensors (especially sampling, field of view) and SHWFS centroiding methods.
We investigate the non-modulating pyramid wave-front sensor's (P-WFS) implementation in the context of Lick
Observatory's Villages visible light AO system on the Nickel 1-meter telescope. A complete adaptive optics correction,
using a non-modulated P-WFS in slope sensing mode as a boot-strap to a regime in which the P-WFS can act as a direct
phase sensor is explored. An iterative approach to reconstructing the wave-front phase, given the pyramid wave-front
sensor's non-linear signal, is developed. Using Monte Carlo simulations, the iterative reconstruction method's photon
noise propagation behavior is compared to both the pyramid sensor used in slope-sensing mode, and the traditional
Shack Hartmann sensor's theoretical performance limits. We determine that bootstrapping using the P-WFS as a slope
sensor does not offer enough correction to bring the phase residuals into a regime in which the iterative algorithm can
provide much improvement in phase measurement. It is found that both the iterative phase reconstructor and the slope
reconstruction methods offer an advantage in noise propagation over Shack Hartmann sensors.
We attempt to linearize the output of the Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor in the ViLLaGEs instrument. ViLLaGEs
(Visible Light Laser Guidestar Experiments) is a MEMS-based Adaptive Optics system on the 1 - meter Nickel
telescope at Lick Observatory meant to provide correction at visible wavelengths with a 9x9 subaperture Hartmann
sensor. We estimate that the open-loop accuracy of ViLLaGEs is ~40 nm. We "calibrate" the Hartmann linearity by
raster scanning a tip/tilt mirror downstream of an internal fiber and inverting the resulting signal, forming a lookup table
of unbiased tilts. From this calibration, we conclude that nonlinearity is a minor effect in the open-loop operation of
ViLLaGEs, on the order of ~15 nm. We show through simulations of Shack-Hartmann sensors that this error is likely
due to an internal pupil mask not physically conjugate to the telescope pupil. We test the resulting lookup table on an
internal "turbulator" in ViLLaGEs, or a rotating plate meant to simulate the wind-driven atmosphere, and find that the
Strehls with and without the lookup table are indistinguishable.
The Pupil mapping Exoplanet Coronagraphic Observer (PECO) mission concept is a 1.4-m telescope aimed at
imaging and characterizing extra-solar planetary systems at optical wavelengths. The coronagraphic method
employed, Phase-Induced Amplitude Apodization or PIAA (a.k.a. pupil mapping) can deliver 1e-10 contrast at
2 lambda/D and uses almost all the starlight that passes through the aperture to maintain higher throughput and
higher angular resolution than any other coronagraph or nuller, making PECO the theoretically most efficient
existing approach for imaging extra-solar planetary systems. PECO's instrument also incorporates deformable
mirrors for high accuracy wavefront control. Our studies show that a probe-scale PECO mission with 1.4 m
aperture is extremely powerful, with the capability of imaging at spectral resolution R≈∠15 the habitable zones
of already known F, G, K stars with sensitivity sufficient to detect planets down to Earth size, and to map
dust clouds down to a fraction of our zodiacal cloud dust brightness. PECO will acquire narrow field images
simultaneously in 10 to 20 spectral bands covering wavelengths from 0.4 to 1.0 μm and will utilize all available
photons for maximum wavefront sensing and imaging/spectroscopy sensitivity. This approach is well suited for
low-resolution spectral characterization of both planets and dust clouds with a moderately sized telescope.
We also report on recent results obtained with the laboratory prototype of a coronagraphic low order wavefront
sensor (CLOWFS) for PIAA coronagraph. The CLOWFS is a key part of PECO's design and will enable high
contrast at the very small PECO inner working angle.
The Gemini Planet Imager (GPI) is a facility instrument under construction for the 8-m Gemini South telescope. It
combines a 1500 subaperture AO system using a MEMS deformable mirror, an apodized-pupil Lyot coronagraph, a
high-accuracy IR interferometer calibration system, and a near-infrared integral field spectrograph to allow detection and
characterization of self-luminous extrasolar planets at planet/star contrast ratios of 10-7. I will discuss the evolution from
science requirements through modeling to the final detailed design, provide an overview of the subsystems and show
models of the instrument's predicted performance.
Performance of adaptive optics (AO) systems is limited by the tradeoff between photon noise at the wavefront sensor and
temporal error from the duty cycle of the controller. Optimal control studies have shown that this temporal error can be
reduced by predicting the turbulence evolution during the control cycle. We formulate a wind model that divides the
wind into two components: a quasi-static layer and a wind-driven frozen-flow layer. Using this internal wind model, we
design a computationally efficient controller that is able to estimate and predict the dynamics of a single windblown
layer and simulate this controller using on-sky data from the Palomar Adaptive Optics system.
We also present results from a laboratory implementation of multi-conjugate AO (MCAO) with multi-layer wind
estimation in conjunction with tomographic reconstruction. The tomography engine breaks the atmosphere into discrete
layers, each with its own wind estimator. The resulting MCAO control algorithm is able to track and predict the motion
of multiple wind layers with wind estimates that update at every controller cycle.
Once the wind velocities of each layer are known, the deformable mirror update speed is no longer limited by the
wavefront sensor exposure time so it is possible to send multiple correction updates to the deformable mirror each
control cycle in order to dynamically track wind layers across the telescope aperture. The result is better dynamics in the
feedback control system that enables higher closed-loop bandwidth for a given wavefront sensor frame rate.
In this paper we review the current status of work in the sodium guidestar laser arena from the perspective of an
astronomical AO system developer and user. Sodium beacons provide the highest and most useful guidestars for the 8m
and larger class telescopes, but unfortunately sodium lasers are expensive and difficult to build at high output powers.
Here we present highlights of recent advancements in the laser technology. Perhaps most dramatic are the recent
theoretical and experimental efforts leading to better understanding the physics of coupling the laser light to the upper
altitude sodium for best return signal. In addition we will discuss the key issues which affect LGS AO system
performance and their technology drivers, including: pulse format, guidestar elongation, crystal and fiber technology,
and beam transport.
The W. M. Keck Observatory is designing a new adaptive optics system providing precision AO correction in the near
infrared, good correction at visible wavelengths, and multiplexed spatially resolved spectroscopy. We discuss science
cases for this Next Generation AO (NGAO), and show how the system requirements were derived from these science
cases. Key science drivers include asteroid companions, planets around low-mass stars, general relativistic effects
around the Galactic Center black hole, nearby active galactic nuclei, and high-redshift galaxies (including galaxies
lensed by intervening galaxies or clusters). The multi-object AO-corrected integral field spectrograph will be optimized
for high-redshift galaxy science.
The Lick Observatory is pursuing new technologies for adaptive optics that will enable feasible low cost laser guidestar
systems for visible wavelength astronomy. The Villages system, commissioned at the 40 inch Nickel Telescope this past
Fall, serves as an on-sky testbed for new deformable mirror technology (high-actuator count MEMS devices), open-loop
wavefront sensing and control, pyramid wavefront sensing, and laser uplink correction. We describe the goals of our
experiments and present the early on-sky results of AO closed-loop and open-loop operation. We will also report on our
plans for on-sky tests of the direct-phase measuring pyramid-lenslet wavefront sensor and plans for installing a laser
guidestar system.
Micro-electrical-mechanical-systems (MEMS) deformable mirrors (DMs) are under study at the Laboratory for
Adaptive Optics for inclusion in possible future adaptive optics systems, including open loop or extreme adaptive
optics (ExAO) systems. MEMS DMs have several advantages in these areas because of low (to zero) hysterisis
and high actuator counts. In this paper, we present work in the area of high-contrast adaptive optics systems,
such as those needed to image extrasolar planets. These are known to require excellent wavefront control and
diffraction suppression. On the ExAO testbed we have already demonstrated wavefront control of better than
1 nm rms within controllable spatial frequencies, however, corresponding contrast measurements are limited by
amplitude variations, including variations introduced by the MEMS. Results from experimental measurements
and wave optic simulations on the ExAO testbed will be presented. In particular the effect of small scale
MEMS structures on amplitude variations and ultimately high-contrast far field measurements will be examined.
Experimental results include interferometer measurements of phase and amplitude using the phase shifting
diffraction interferometer, direct imaging of the pupil, and far-field imaging.
New concepts for astronomical adaptive optics are enabled by use of micro-electrical mechanical systems (MEMS)
deformable mirrors (DMs). Unlike traditional DMs now used in astronomical AO systems, MEMS devices are
smaller, less expensive, and exhibit extraordinarily repeatable actuation. Consequently, MEMS technology
allows for novel configurations, such as multi-object AO, that require open-loop control of multiple DMs. At the
UCO/Lick Observatory Laboratory for Adaptive Optics we are pursuing this concept in part by creating a phaseto-
voltage model for the MEMS DM. We model the surface deflection approximately by the thin-plate equation.
Using this modeling technique, we have achieved open-loop control accuracy in the laboratory to ~13-30 nm
surface rms in response to ~1-3 μm peak-to-valley commands, respectively. Next, high-resolution measurements
of the displacement between actuator posts are compared to the homogeneous solution of the thin-plate equation,
to verify the model's validity. These measurements show that the thin-plate equation seems a plausible approach
to modeling deformations of the top surface down to lateral scales of a tenth actuator spacing. Finally, in order
to determine the physical lower limit to which our model can be expected to be accurate, we conducted a set
of hysteresis experiments with a MEMS. We detect only a sub-nanometer amount of hysteresis of 0.6±0.3 nm
surface over a 160-volt loop. This complements our previous stability and position repeatability measurements,
showing that MEMS DMs actuate to sub-nanometer precision and are hence controllable in open-loop.
The MEMS-AO/Villages project consists of a series of on-sky experiments that will demonstrate key new
technologies for the next generation of adaptive optics systems for large telescopes. One of our first goals is to
demonstrate the use of a micro-electro-mechanical systems (MEMS) deformable mirror as the wavefront correcting
element. The system is mounted the 1-meter Nickel Telescope at the UCO/Lick Observatory on Mount Hamilton. It
uses a 140 element (10 subapertures across) MEMS deformable mirror and is designed to produce diffraction-limited
images at wavelengths from 0.5 to 1.0 microns. The system had first light on the telescope in October 2007.
Here we report on the results of initial on-sky tests.
High-contrast adaptive optics systems, such as those needed to image extrasolar planets, are known to require
excellent wavefront control and diffraction suppression. At the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics on the Extreme
Adaptive Optics testbed, we have already demonstrated wavefront control of better than 1 nm rms within controllable
spatial frequencies. Corresponding contrast measurements, however, are limited by amplitude variations,
including those introduced by the micro-electrical-mechanical-systems (MEMS) deformable mirror. Results from
experimental measurements and wave optic simulations of amplitude variations on the ExAO testbed are presented.
We find systematic intensity variations of about 2% rms, and intensity variations with the MEMS to
be 6%. Some errors are introduced by phase and amplitude mixing because the MEMS is not conjugate to
the pupil, but independent measurements of MEMS reflectivity suggest that some error is introduced by small
non-uniformities in the reflectivity.
We present a method of calibrating nonlinear Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensors to enable open-loop wavefront
sensing of atmospheric turbulence. Involving a two-dimensional raster scan of a point source behind a telescope's
primary, this method is robust to aliasing, non-common path errors, linearity error, and truncation error. We have
implemented this technique on the UCO/Lick Laboratory for Adaptive Optics Multi-Conjugate AO (MCAO)
and Multi-Object AO (MOAO) testbed. This testbed has 5 laser guide stars with star-oriented Shack-Hartmann
wavefront sensors that have 4x4 pixel subapertures. We show that the disagreement between these multiple
wavefront sensors on a simulated 10 meter telescope is decreased from 0.80 radians to 0.30 radians RMS for
a full atmosphere (0.6" seeing) with our linearity calibration. This linearity calibration enables simulation of
open-loop MOAO with good Strehl (36% with a simulated science wavelength of 950 nm on-axis) on a 10 meter
aperture. We present a complete error budget for this case, with all budget terms empirically verified through
interferometric methods. We verify that the tomographic error (due to blind modes) as empirically measured on
the testbed is consistent with that predicted by tomographic reconstructions of simulated atmospheres.
As adaptive optics (AO) technology progresses, both wide-field and high-order wavefront correction systems become
reachable. Deformable mirrors (DMs) in these advanced architectures must exhibit exemplary performance
to give low wavefront error. Such DMs must be economically attainable, meet stroke as well as flatness requirements,
and show stable and repeatable actuation. Micro-electrical mechanical systems (MEMS) deformable
mirrors, undergoing testing and characterization in the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (LAO) at the University
of California at Santa Cruz, show promise on these fronts. In addition to requiring advanced deformable mirror
technology, these progressive AO architectures require advanced DM control algorithms. We therefore present
a formulation for accurate open-loop control of MEMS deformable mirrors. The electrostatic actuators in a
discrete-actuator MEMS device are attached via posts to a thin reflective top plate. The plate itself can be
well-modeled by the thin plate equation. The actuators, although nonlinear in their response to applied voltage
and deformation, are independent of each other except through forces transmitted by the top plate and can be
empirically modeled via a calibration procedure we will describe. In this paper we present the modeling and
laboratory results. So far in the lab we have achieved open loop control to approximately 15 nm accuracy in response to arbitrary
commands of approximately 500 nm amplitude. Open-loop control enables a wealth of new applications for astronomical
adaptive optics instruments, particularly in multi-object integral field spectroscopy, which we will describe.
The Lick Observatory has been a pioneer in the development of innovative technology for astronomy particularly the
development of adaptive optics and laser guidestar systems. The UCO/Lick Observatory Laboratory for Adaptive
Optics (LAO) is actively pursuing development of new device technologies and techniques that will enable the next
generation of adaptive optics systems for astronomy. The LAO has been developing, in coordination with industry,
MEMS deformable mirrors for high speed high precision wavefront control. In this paper we will present the status of
the development process and the goals for the future.
The near-Infrared Multi-Object Spectrograph (IRMOS) for TMT is one of the most powerful astronomical instruments ever envisioned. The combination of the collecting area of TMT, the unique image-sharpening capabilities of the Multi-Object Adaptive Optics (MOAO) system, and the multiplexing advantage of the multi-object integral-field spectra provided by the IRMOS back-end make it capable of addressing some of the leading scientific challenges of the coming decades. Here we present an overview of one potential IRMOS concept and then focus on the MOAO system. In particular we will describe our concept for the laser and natural guide star wavefront sensors, deformable mirrors and the calibration system of MOAO. For each of these design elements, we describe the key trade studies which help define each subsystem. From results of our studies, we assemble a MOAO ensquared energy budget. We find that 50% of the energy is ensquared within the 50 milli-arcsecond spatial pixel of the IRMOS integral field units for a wavelength of 1.65μm. Given the requirements placed on the MOAO system to achieve this performance, large ensquared energies can be achieved with even finer plate scales for wavelengths longer than 1.5μm.
We present a summary of our current results from the Extreme Adaptive Optics (ExAO) Testbed and the design
and status of its coronagraphic upgrade. The ExAO Testbed at the Laboratory for Adaptive Optics at UCO/Lick
Observatory is optimized for ultra-high contrast applications requiring high-order wavefront control. It is being
used to investigate and develop technologies for the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI). The testbed is equipped with
a phase shifting diffraction interferometer (PSDI), which measures the wavefront with sub-nm precision and
accuracy. The testbed also includes a 1024-actuator Micro Electro Mechanical Systems (MEMS) deformable
mirror manufactured by Boston Micromachines. We present a summary of the current results with the testbed
encompassing MEMS flattening via PSDI, MEMS flattening via a Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensor (with and
without spatial filtering), the introduction of Kolmogorov phase screens, and contrast in the far-field. Upgrades
in progress include adding additional focal and pupil planes to better control scattered light and allow alternative
coronagraph architectures, the introduction and testing of high-quality reflecting optics, and a variety of input
phase aberrations. Ultimately, the system will serve as a full prototype for GPI.
Current high-contrast "extreme" adaptive optics (ExAO) systems are partially limited by deformable mirror technology. Mirror requirements specify thousands of actuators, all of which must be functional within the clear aperture, and which give nanometer flatness yet micron stroke when operated in closed loop.1 Micro-electrical mechanical-systems (MEMS) deformable mirrors have been shown to meet ExAO actuator yield, wavefront error, and cost considerations. This study presents the performance of Boston Micromachines' 1024-actuator continuous-facesheet MEMS deformable mirrors under tests for actuator stability, position repeatability, and practical operating stroke. To explore whether MEMS actuators are susceptible to temporal variation, a series of long-term stability experiments were conducted. Each actuator was held fixed and the motion over 40 minutes was measured. The median displacement of all the actuators tested was 0.08 nm surface, inclusive of system error. MEMS devices are also appealing for adaptive optics architectures based on open-loop correction. In experiments of actuator position repeatability, 100% of the tested actuators returned repeatedly to their starting point with a precision of < 1 nm surface. Finally, MEMS devices were tested for maximum stroke achieved under application of spatially varying one-dimensional sinusoids. Given a specified amplitude in voltage, the measured stroke was 1 μm surface at the low spatial frequencies, decreasing to 0.2 μm surface for the highest spatial frequency. Stroke varied somewhat linearly as inverse spatial frequency, with a flattening in the relation at the high spatial frequency end.
The wavefront sensor camera and tip/tilt sensor APDs that were on Lick Observatory's Shane 3 Meter Adaptive Optics system were over a decade old and showing their age. They were recently upgraded. The first upgrade was to convert from quad-APDs in the laser guidestar mode natural star tip-tilt sensor to a sensitive low-noise CCD. The new CCD in this position, an 80x80 E2V CCD-39 inside a SciMeasure camera, has a low enough read noise, ~3 e-/pixel, that the tip/tilt measurement in closed-loop operation is photon noise limited and thus benefits from the improved quantum efficiency of the CCD. We have demonstrated on-sky up to two magnitudes of improvement in viable tip/tilt star brightness, which greatly extends the available sky coverage in the laser guidestar AO mode. Also, the increased field of view of the new tip/tilt sensor provides a much more reliable means of acquiring and locking on dim tip/tilt stars, making the whole system operationally more efficient. In the second phase of the upgrade project, the high order wavefront sensor has been replaced, also with a CCD-39 chip in a SciMeasure camera. In this paper we will describe these upgrades and present preliminary performance results.
The UCO/Lick Observatory Laboratory for Adaptive Optics charter goal is to advancing the state of the art in
adaptive optics technology for instruments on the current and next generation of extremely large telescopes. We are
investigating the architecture and techniques for implementing wide field adaptive optics systems for general purpose
imaging and spectroscopy and high contrast adaptive optics systems for imaging extrasolar planets. The laboratory
has two testbeds, a high contrast extreme adaptive optics (ExAO) testbed and a multi-guidestar tomography adaptive
optics testbed. The later is reconfigurable between multi-conjugate AO (MCAO) and multi-object AO (MOAO)
architectures. The testbeds are scaled to emulate 10 to 30 meter aperture telescope AO systems and allow systematic
study of the performance and practicalities of such systems. Additionally, we are developing and testing new AO
component technologies including novel wavefront sensors and MEMS deformable mirrors. In this paper we
highlight the status and direction of the laboratory experiments and summarize the latest results.
KEYWORDS: Wavefronts, Adaptive optics, Filtering (signal processing), Turbulence, Feedback control, Monte Carlo methods, Device simulation, Adaptive control, Signal to noise ratio, Time metrology
In the case where wind blown turbulence is mostly adhering to frozen flow conditions the use of the Kalman Filter in an adaptive optics controller is of interest because it incorporates prior the time history of wavefront measurements as additional information to be combined with the immediate measurement of the wavefront. In prior work we have shown that indeed there is a signal to noise advantage, however the extra real-time overhead of the Kalman Filter computations can become prohibitive for larger aperture systems. In this paper we investigate a Fourier domain implementation that might approximate, and gain the advantages of, the Kalman Filter while being feasible to implement in real time control computers. Most of the advantage of using the Kalman Filter comes from its ability to predict the wind blown turbulence for the next measurement step. For the photonic and instrumentation noise levels commonly found in astronomical AO systems, we find that most of the Strehl gain is achieved by simply translating the wavefront estimate the incremental distance.
The Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT), the next generation giant segmented mirror telescope, will have unprecedented
astronomical science capability. Since science productivity is greatly enhanced through the use of adaptive optics, the
TMT science team has decided that adaptive optics should be implanted on all the IR instruments. We present the
results of a feasibility study for the adaptive optics systems on the infrared multi-object spectrograph, IRMOS and
report on the design concepts and architectural options. The IRMOS instrument is intended to produce integral field
spectra of up to 20 objects distributed over a 5 arcminute field of regard. The IRMOS adaptive optics design is unique
in that it will use multiple laser guidestars to reconstruct the atmospheric volume tomographically, then apply AO
correction for each science direction independently. Such a scheme is made technically feasible and cost effective
through the use of micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) deformable mirrors.
Pyramid wavefront sensors offer an alternative to traditional Hartmann sensing for wavefront measurement in astronomical
adaptive optics systems. The Pyramid sensor has been described as a slope sensor with potential sensitivity
gains over the Shack Hartmann sensor, but in actuality seems to exhibit traits of both a slope sensor and a direct phase
sensor. The original configuration, utilizing glass pyramids and modulation techniques, is difficult to implement. We
present results of laboratory experiments using a Pyramid sensor that utilizes a micro-optic lenslet array in place of a
glass pyramid, and does not require modulation. A group of four lenslets forms both the pyramid knife-edge and the
pupil reimaging functions. The lenslet array is fabricated using a technique that pays careful attention to the quality of
the edges and corners of the lenslets. The devices we have tested show less than 1 micron edge and corner imperfections,
making them some of the sharpest edges available. We finish by comparing our results to theoretical wave optic
predictions which clearly show the dual nature of the sensor.
The next major frontier in the study of extrasolar planets is direct imaging detection of the planets themselves. With high-order adaptive optics, careful system design, and advanced coronagraphy, it is possible for an AO system on a 8-m class telescope to achieve contrast levels of 10-7 to 10-8, sufficient to detect warm self-luminous Jovian planets in the solar neighborhood. Such direct detection is sensitive to planets inaccessible to current radial-velocity surveys and allows spectral characterization of the planets, shedding light on planet formation and the structure of other solar systems. We have begun the construction of such a system for the Gemini Observatory. Dubbed the Gemini Planet Imager (GPI), this instrument should be deployed in 2010 on the Gemini South telescope. It combines a 2000-actuator MEMS-based AO system, an apodized-pupil Lyot coronagraph, a precision infrared interferometer for real-time wavefront calibration at the nanometer level, and a infrared integral field spectrograph for detection and characterization of the target planets. GPI will be able to achieve Strehl ratios > 0.9 at 1.65 microns and to observe a broad sample of science targets with I band magnitudes less than 8. In addition to planet detection, GPI will also be capable of polarimetric imaging of circumstellar dust disks, studies of evolved stars, and high-Strehl imaging spectroscopy of bright targets. We present here an overview of the GPI instrument design, an error budget highlighting key technological challenges, and models of the system performance.
We present first results from the Multi-Conjugate and Multi-Object Adaptive Optics (MCAO and MOAO) testbed, at the UCO/Lick Laboratory for Adaptive Optics (LAO) facility at U.C. Santa Cruz. This testbed is constructed to simulate a 30-m telescope executing MCAO and/or open loop MOAO atmospheric compensation and imaging over 5 arcminutes. It is capable of performing Shack-Hartmann wavefront sensing on up to 8 natural or laser guide stars and 2-3 additional tip/tilt stars. In this paper, we demonstrate improved on-axis correction relative to ground layer adaptive optics (~ 15% Strehl relative to ~ 12%) with a simulated 28-m aperture at a D/r0 corresponding to a science wavelength of 2.6 microns using three laser guide stars on a simulated 41 arcsec radius with a central science object and one deformable mirror at the ground layer.
In this paper, we provide an overview of the adaptive optics (AO) program for the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT) project, including an update on requirements; the philosophical approach to developing an overall AO system architecture; the recently completed conceptual designs for facility and instrument AO systems; anticipated first light capabilities and upgrade options; and the hardware, software, and controls interfaces with the remainder of the observatory. Supporting work in AO component development, lab and field tests, and simulation and analysis is also discussed. Further detail on all of these subjects may be found in additional papers in this conference.
We present an overview of the near-InfraRed Multi-Object Spectrograph (IRMOS) for the Thirty Meter Telescope, as developed under a Feasibility Study at the University of Florida and Herzberg Institute of Astrophysics. IRMOS incorporates a multi-object adaptive optics correction capability over a 5-arcminute field of regard on TMT. Up to 20 independently-selectable target fields-of-view with ~2-arcsec diameter can be accessed within this field simultaneously. IRMOS provides near-diffraction-limited integral field spectroscopy over the 0.8-2.5 μm bandpass at R~1,000-20,000 for each target field. We give a brief summary of the Design Reference science cases for IRMOS. We then present an overview of the IRMOS baseline instrument design.
New advances in Micro Electro-mechanical Systems (MEMS) deformable mirrors with high actuator count, high precision, and low cost have greatly influenced the design thinking for high resolution instruments on the next generation of large aperture telescopes for ground based astronomy. The use of MEMS as general purpose active optical components will open up a variety of capabilities for both sensing and controlling of astronomical light. In this talk we will describe the current thinking for instrument concepts on the Thirty Meter Telescope project and discuss some of our preliminary results from MEMS and AO system concept testing at the UCO/Lick Laboratory for Adaptive Optics.
We have demonstrated that a microelectrical mechanical systems (MEMS) deformable mirror can be flattened to < 1 nm RMS within controllable spatial frequencies over a 9.2-mm aperture making it a viable option for high-contrast adaptive optics systems (also known as Extreme Adaptive Optics). The Extreme Adaptive Optics Testbed at UC Santa Cruz is being used to investigate and develop technologies for high-contrast imaging, especially wavefront control. A phase shifting diffraction interferometer (PSDI) measures wavefront errors with sub-nm precision and accuracy for metrology and wavefront control. Consistent flattening, required testing and characterization of the individual actuator response, including the effects of dead and low-response actuators. Stability and repeatability of the MEMS devices was also tested. An error budget for MEMS closed loop performance will summarize MEMS characterization.
Adaptive Optics (AO) will be essential for at least seven of the eight science instruments currently planned for the Thirty Meter Telescope (TMT). These instruments include three near infra-red (NIR) imagers and spectrometers with fields of view from 2 to 30 arc seconds, a mid-IR echelle spectrometer, a planet formation imager/spectrometer, a wide field optical spectrograph, and a NIR multi-object spectrometer with multiple integral field units deployable over a 5 arc minute field of regard. In this paper we describe the overall AO reference design that supports these instruments, which consists of a facility AO system feeding the first three instruments and dedicated AO systems for the remaining four. Key design challenges for these systems include very high-order, large-stroke wavefront correction, tip-tilt sensing with faint natural guide stars to maximize sky coverage, laser guidestar wavefront sensing on a very large aperture, and achieving extremely high contrast ratios for the detection of extra-solar planets and other faint companions of bright stars. We describe design concepts for meeting these challenges and summarize our supporting plans for AO component development.
"Extreme" adaptive optics systems are optimized for ultra-high contrast applications, such as ground-based extrasolar planet detection. The Extreme Adaptive Optics Testbed at UC Santa Cruz is being used to investigate and develop technologies for high-contrast imaging, especially wavefront control. We use a simple optical design to minimize wavefront error and maximize the experimentally achievable contrast. A phase shifting diffraction interferometer (PSDI) measures wavefront errors with sub-nm precision and accuracy for metrology and wavefront control. Previously, we have demonstrated RMS wavefront errors of <1.5 nm and a contrast of >107 over a substantial region using a shaped pupil without a deformable mirror. Current work includes the installation and characterization of a 1024-actuator Micro-Electro-Mechanical-Systems (MEMS) deformable mirror, manufactured by Boston Micro-Machines for active wavefront control. Using the PSDI as the wavefront sensor we have flattened the deformable mirror to <1 nm within the controllable spatial frequencies and measured a contrast in the far field of >106. Consistent flattening required testing and characterization of the individual actuator response, including the effects of dead and low-response actuators. Stability and repeatability of the MEMS devices was also tested. Ultimately this testbed will be used to test all aspects of the system architecture for an extrasolar planet-finding AO system.
An adaptive optics system using multiple deformable mirrors and an array of guidestars can correct over a wider field of view than traditional single DM systems and can also eliminate the cone-effect error due to the finite altitude of laser guidestars. In large telescope systems, such as the envisioned 30-meter telescope, or TMT, the extraordinarily large amount of computation needed to implement multi-conjugate adaptive optics at atmospheric turnover rates is prohibitive for ordinary CPUs, even when another ten years of computer development is taken into account. We present here a novel approach, implementing a fast iterative version of the key inverse tomography calculations in an array of parallel computing elements. Our initial laboratory experiments using field-programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) are promising in terms of speed and convergence rates. In this paper we present the theory and results from simulations and experiments.
We describe an exploratory optical design for the Narrow Field InfraRed Adaptive Optics (AO) System (NFIRAOS) Petite, a proposed adaptive optics system for the Thirty Meter Telescope Project. NFIRAOS will feed infrared spectrograph and wide-field imaging instruments with a diffraction limited beam. The adaptive optics system will require multi-guidestar tomographic wavefront sensing (WFS) and multi-conjugate AO correction. The NFIRAOS Petite design specifications include two small 60 mm diameter deformable mirrors (DM's) used in a woofer/tweeter or multiconjugate arrangement. At least one DM would be a micro-electromechanical system (MEMS) DM. The AO system would correct a 10 to 30 arcsec diameter science field as well as laser guide stars (LGS's) located within a 60 arcsec diameter field and low-order or tip/tilt natural guide stars (NGS's) within a 60 arcsec diameter field. The WFS's are located downstream of the DM's so that they can be operated in true closed-loop, which is not necessarily a given in extremely large telescope adaptive optics design. The WFS's include adjustable corrector elements which correct the static aberrations of the AO relay due to field position and LGS distance height.
Current and future large telescopes depend critically on laser guide
star adaptive optics (LGS AO) to achieve their scientific goals.
However, there are still relatively few scientific results reported
from existing LGS AO systems. We present some of the first science
results from the Lick Observatory sodium beacon LGS AO system. We
achieve high sensitivity to light scattered in the circumstellar
enviroment of Herbig Ae/Be stars on scales of 100-200 AU by coupling
the LGS AO system to a near-infrared (J,H,Ks bands) dual channel imaging polarimeter. We describe the design, implementation, and performance of this instrument. The dominant noise source near bright stars in AO images is a "seeing halo" of uncorrected speckles, and since these speckles are unpolarized, dual-channel polarimetry achieves a significant contrast gain. Our observations reveal a wide range of morphologies, including bipolar nebulosities with and without outflow-evacuated cavities and disk-mediated interaction among members of a binary. These data suggest that the evolutionary picture developed for the lower-mass T Tauri stars is also relevant to the Herbig Ae/Be stars, and demonstrate the ability of LGS AO systems to enhance the scientific capabilities of even modest sized telescopes.
The separation principle of optimal adaptive optics control is derived, and definitions of controllability and observability are introduced. An exact finite dimensional state space representation of the control system dynamics is obtained without the need for truncation in modes such as Zernikes. The uncertainty of sensing uncontrollable modes confuses present adaptive optics controllers. This uncertainty can be modeled by a Kalman filter. Reducing this uncertainty permits increased gain, increasing the Strehl, which is done by an optimal control law derived here. A general model of the atmosphere is considered, including boiling.
The scientific return on adaptive optics on large telescopes has generated a new vocabulary of different adaptive optics (AO) modalities. Multiobject AO (MOAO), multiconjugate AO (MCAO), ground-layer AO (GLAO), and extreme contrast AO (ExAO) each require complex new extensions in functional requirements beyond the experience gained with systems operational on large telescopes today. Because of this potential for increased complexity, a more formal requirements development process is recommended. We describe a methodology for requirements definition under consideration and summarize the current scientific prioritization of TMT AO capabilities.
As adaptive optics (AO) matures, it becomes possible to envision AO systems oriented towards specific important scientific goals rather than general-purpose systems. One such goal for the next decade is the direct imaging detection of extrasolar planets. An "extreme" adaptive optics (ExAO) system optimized for extrasolar planet detection will have very high actuator counts and rapid update rates - designed for observations of bright stars - and will require exquisite internal calibration at the nanometer level. In addition to extrasolar planet detection, such a system will be capable of characterizing dust disks around young or mature stars, outflows from evolved stars, and high Strehl ratio imaging even at visible wavelengths. The NSF Center for Adaptive Optics has carried out a detailed conceptual design study for such an instrument, dubbed the eXtreme Adaptive Optics Planet Imager or XAOPI. XAOPI is a 4096-actuator AO system, notionally for the Keck telescope, capable of achieving contrast ratios >107 at angular separations of 0.2-1". ExAO system performance analysis is quite different than conventional AO systems - the spatial and temporal frequency content of wavefront error sources is as critical as their magnitude. We present here an overview of the XAOPI project, and an error budget highlighting the key areas determining achievable contrast. The most challenging requirement is for residual static errors to be less than 2 nm over the controlled range of spatial frequencies. If this can be achieved, direct imaging of extrasolar planets will be feasible within this decade.
Since the discovery of Dactyl orbiting around Ida by the Galileo spacecraft in 1993, over twenty-five binary asteroid systems have been discovered using radar, direct imaging and Adaptive Optics observations. Asteroidal moon discoveries dramatically increased with the advent of this last technique on ground based telescopes. Our group focuses on the search and study of double asteroids in the main-belt, in the Trojan population and beyond Neptune's orbit. We have been using several of the AO systems available (Lick-3m, Palomar-5m, VLT-8m, Keck-10m) and related techniques such as Appulse and Laser Guide Star observations to broaden the sample of asteroids observed from the main-belt out to the Kuiper Belt. We will present a quality comparison between various techniques and different AO systems with NGS and will detail our first successful observations with the Lick LGS system. Precise orbital elements of the secondary can be determined by multiple observations spanning large periods of time (several months). Our group developed a method to predict the ephemeris of a secondary companion. Without any assumptions, this method, tested successfully on 22 Kalliope and 121 Hermione binary systems, leads to the direct determination of important physical
parameters of the targets, such as their mass and the interior structure, as well as gives direct insights on their formation
processes that may be otherwise only be speculated on from spacecraft mission flybys.
In this paper we present a solution to the MCAO reconstruction problem using multiple laser guide stars and show that it can be interpreted as a form of back-projection tomography. It is shown that a key intermediate step is to determine a minimum-variance estimate of the index variations over the atmospheric volume. We follow the idea of Tokovinin and Viard [JOSA-A, April 2001] in initially formulating the problem in the Fourier domain; we then extend the interpretation to the spatial domain. The former results were limited to the case of infinite aperture and plane wave beacons, and the statistically optimal wavefront solution was given for a single science direction. The new approach is more general and interpretable as tomographic back-projections, which gives rise to algorithms for the finite aperture, cone (laser) beams, and wide-science-field cases. A fortuitous consequence of this analysis is that a "fast" algorithm suitable for real-time implementation has become evident. The reconstruction requires only filtering and the inversion of small (dimension = number of guidestars) matrices. In simulations, we compare results with those of a spatial domain least-square matrix-inversion method.
Horizontal path correction of optical beam propagation presents a severe challenge to adaptive optics systems due to the short transverse coherence length and the high degree of scintillation incurred by propagation along these paths. The system presented operates with nearly monochromatic light. It does not require a global reconstruction of the phase, thereby eliminating issues with branch points and making its performance relatively unaffected by scintillation. The systems pixel count, 1024, and relatively high correction speed, in excess of 800 Hz, enable its use for correction of horizontal path beam propagation. We present results from laboratory and field tests of the system in which we have achieved Strehl ratios greater than 0.5.
This article investigates the use of a multi-conjugate adaptive optics system to improve the field-of-view for the system. The emphasis of this research is to develop techniques to improve the performance of optical systems with applications to horizontal imaging. The design and wave optics simulations of the proposed system are given. Preliminary results from the multi-conjugate adaptive optics system are also presented. The experimental system utilizes a liquid-crystal spatial light modulator and an interferometric wave-front sensor for correction and sensing of the phase aberrations, respectively.
Adaptive optics (AO), a mature technology developed for astronomy to compensate for the effects of atmospheric turbulence, can also be used to correct the aberrations of the eye. The classic phoropter is used by ophthalmologists and optometrists to estimate and correct the lower-order aberrations of the eye, defocus and astigmatism, in order to derive a vision correction prescription for their patients. An adaptive optics phoropter measures and corrects the aberrations in the human eye using adaptive optics techniques, which are capable of dealing with both the standard low-order aberrations and higher-order aberrations, including coma and spherical aberration. High-order aberrations have been shown to degrade visual performance for clinical subjects in initial
investigations. An adaptive optics phoropter has been designed and constructed based on a Shack-Hartmann sensor to measure the aberrations of the eye, and a liquid crystal spatial light modulator to compensate for them. This system should produce near diffraction-limited optical image quality at the retina, which will enable investigation of the psychophysical limits of human vision. This paper describes the characterization and operation of the AO phoropter with results from human subject testing.
Ground based adaptive optics is a potentially powerful technique for direct imaging detection of extrasolar planets. Turbulence in the Earth's atmosphere imposes some fundamental limits, but the large size of ground-based telescopes compared to spacecraft can work to mitigate this. We are carrying out a design study for a dedicated ultra-high-contrast system, the eXtreme Adaptive Optics Planet Imager (XAOPI), which could be deployed on an 8-10m telescope in 2007. With a 4096-actuator MEMS deformable mirror it should achieve Strehl >0.9 in the near-IR. Using an innovative spatially filtered wavefront sensor, the system will be optimized to control scattered light over a large radius and suppress artifacts caused by static errors. We predict that it will achieve contrast levels of 107-108 at angular separations of 0.2-0.8" around a large sample of stars (R<7-10), sufficient to detect Jupiter-like planets through their near-IR emission over a wide range of ages and masses. We are constructing a high-contrast AO testbed to verify key concepts of our system, and present preliminary results here, showing an RMS wavefront error of <1.3 nm with a flat mirror.
Adaptive optics enables high resolution imaging through the atmospheric by correcting for the turbulent air's aberrations to the light waves passing through it. The Lawrence Livermore National Labratory for a number of years has been at the forefront of applying adaptive optics technology to astronomy on the world's largest astronomical telescopes, in particular at the Keck 10-meter telescope on Mauna Kea, Hawaii. The technology includes the development of high-speed electrically driven deformable mirrors, high-speed low-noise CCD sensors, and real-time wavefront reconstruction and control hardware. Adaptive optics finds applications in many other areas where light beams pass through aberrating media and must be corrected to maintain diffraction-limited performance. We describe systems and results in astronomy, medicine (vision science), and horizontal path imaging, all active programs in our group.
Astronomical applications of adaptive optics at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) has a history that extends from 1984. The program started with the Lick Observatory Adaptive Optics system and has progressed through the years to lever-larger telescopes: Keck, and now the proposed CELT (California Extremely Large Telescope) 30m telescope. LLNL AO continues to be at the forefront of AO development and science.
Of the many novel coronagraphic and nulling techniques that have
been suggested to improve image contrast for exoplanet detection,
one of the most promising is the Quadrant Phase Mask suggested by
Rouan et al. Analysis of this optical system has previously been performed by discrete Fourier transform methods, that result in systematic errors due to the implicit assumptions of the methods and mathematical singularities in the transform of the phase mask. In this paper, we describe an analytical treatment of this optical system that treats these singularities explicitly. We calculate the leakage of a Quadrant Phase Mask Coronagraph with these analytical techniques, and show that a Quadrant Phase Mask rejects all on-axis light for an unaberrated, unobscured circular aperture and is therefore a nearly perfect coronagraph. We demonstrate why the Quadrant Phase Mask coronagraph suffers degraded performance with an obscured aperture, and propose modifications to the pupil geometry to
mitigate this problem.
The Lick Observatory laser guide star adaptive optics system has undergone continual improvement and testing as it is being integrated as a facility science instrument on the Shane 3 meter telescope. Both Natural Guide Star (NGS) and Laser Guide Star (LGS) modes are now used in science observing programs. We report on system performance results as derived from data taken on both science and engineering nights and also describe the newly developed on-line techniques for seeing and system performance characterization. We also describe the future enhancements to the Lick system that will enable additional science goals such as long-exposure spectroscopy.
KEYWORDS: Wavefronts, Sensors, Actuators, Adaptive optics, Matrices, Space operations, Spatial frequencies, Objectives, Space sensors, Signal to noise ratio
A major difficulty with wavefront slope sensors is their insensitivity to certain phase aberration patterns, the classic example being the waffle pattern in the Fried sampling geometry. As the number of degrees of freedom in AO systems grows larger, the possibility of troublesome waffle-like behavior over localized portions of the aperture is becoming evident. Reconstructor matrices have associated with them, either explicitly or implicitly, an orthogonal mode space over which they operate, called the singular mode space. If not properly preconditioned, the reconstructor's mode set can consist almost entirely of modes that each have some localized waffle-like behavior. In this paper we analyze the behavior of least-squares reconstructors with regard to their mode spaces. We introduce a new technique that is successful in producing a mode space that segregates the waffle-like behavior into a few "high order" modes, which can then be projected out of the reconstructor matrix. This technique can be adapted so as to remove any specific modes that are undesirable in the final recontructor (such as piston, tip, and tilt for example) as well as suppress (the more nebulously defined) localized waffle behavior.
A main objective of adaptive optics is to maximize closed-loop Strehl, or, equivalently, minimize the statistical mean-square wavefront residual. Most currently implemented AO wavefront reconstructors and closed-loop control laws do not take into account either the correlation of the Kolmogorov wavefronts over time or the modified statistics of the residual wavefront in closed loop. There have been a number of attempts in the past to generate "predictive" controllers, which utilize wind speed and Cn2 profiles and incorporate one or two previous time steps. We present here a general framework for a dynamic controller/reconstructor design where the goal is to maximize mean closed-loop Strehl ratio over time using all previous data and exploiting the spatial-temporal statistics of the Kolmogorov turbulence and measurement noise.
The multi-conjugate adaptive optics (MCAO) system design for the Gemini-South 8-meter telescope will provide near-diffraction-limited, highly uniform atmospheric turbulence compensation at near-infrared wavelengths over a 2 arc minute diameter field-of-view. The design includes three deformable mirrors optically conjugate to ranges of 0, 4.5, and 9.0 kilometers with 349, 468, and 208 actuators, five 10-Watt-class sodium laser guide stars (LGSs) projected from a laser launch telescope located behind the Gemini secondary mirror, five Shack-Hartmann LGS wavefront sensors of order 16 by 16, and three tip/tilt natural guide star (NGS) wavefront sensors to measure tip/tilt and tilt anisoplanatism wavefront errors. The WFS sampling rate is 800 Hz. This paper provides a brief overview of sample science applications and performance estimates for the Gemini South MCAO system, together with a summary of the performance requirements and/or design status of the principal subsystems. These include the adaptive optics module (AOM), the laser system (LS), the beam transfer optics (BTO) and laser launch telescope (LLT), the real time control (RTC) system, and the aircraft safety system (SALSA).
Measurements of anisoplanatism from data obtained with natural guide star adaptive optics on the Lick Observatory 3m are presented. These were obtained from short exposures of binary stars with the IRCAL camera whose field of view (~20”) is generally considered isoplanatic in the K-band. However, measurable amounts of high-order anisoplanatism were present at separations of ~7” and ~12” with an isoplanatic patch size estimated to be ~26”. Within this field, there was measureable differential image motion between the binary star components. This image motion was small compared to the size of the diffraction-spot and therefore had negligible effect.
The California Extremely Large Telescope (CELT) project has recently completed a 12-month conceptual design phase that has investigated major technology challenges in a number of Observatory subsystems, including adaptive optics (AO). The goal of this effort was not to adopt one or more specific AO architectures. Rather, it was to investigate the feasibility of adaptive optics correction of a 30-meter diameter telescope and to suggest realistic cost ceilings for various adaptive optics capabilities. We present here the key design issues uncovered during conceptual design and present two non-exclusive "baseline" adaptive optics concepts that are expected to be further developed during the following preliminary design phase. Further analysis, detailed engineering trade studies, and certain laboratory and telescope experiments must be performed, and key component technology prototypes demonstrated, prior to adopting one or more adaptive optics systems architectures for realization.
Adaptive optics for the 30-100 meter class telescopes now being considered will require an extension in almost every area of AO system component technology. In this paper, we present scaling laws and strawman error budgets for AO systems on extremely large telescopes (ELTs) and discuss the implications for component technology and computational architecture. In the component technology area, we discuss the advanced efforts being pursued at the NSF Center for Adaptive Optics (CfAO) in the development of large number of degrees of freedom deformable mirrors, wavefront sensors, and guidestar lasers. It is important to note that the scaling of present wavefront reconstructor algorithms will become computationally intractable for ELTs and will require the development of new algorithms and advanced numerical mathematics techniques. We present the computational issues and discuss the characteristics of new algorithmic approaches that show promise in scaling to ELT AO systems.
In the near future, the Gemini Observatory will offer Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics (LGS AO) observations on both Gemini North and South telescopes. The Gemini North AO system will use a 10W-class sodium laser to produce one laser guide star at Mauna Kea, Hawaii, whereas the Gemini South AO System will use up to five such lasers or a single 50W-class laser to produce one to five sodium beacons at Cerro Pachon, Chile. In this paper we discuss the similarities and differences between the Gemini North and South Laser Guide Star Systems. We give a brief overview of the Gemini facility Adaptive Optics systems and the on-going laser research and development program to procure efficient, affordable and reliable lasers. The main part of the paper presents the top-level requirements and preliminary designs for four of the Gemini North and South Laser Guide Star subsystems: the Laser Systems (LS), Beam Transfer Optics (BTO), Laser Launch Telescopes (LLT), and their associated Periscopes.
Adaptive optics performance using a sodium laser guide star at the Lick Observatory 3.0 m telescope is presented. In order to accomplish this the residual effects of natural guide star tip-tilt motion is removed. This is measured from 500 short exposure images (texp = 57ms). The data show instantaneous Strehl ratios ranging from ~ 0.10 to ~ 0.45 with a mean value of ~ 0.26. Centroid tracking of these data yield residual tip-tilt errors of ~ 21 mas, within specifications for the system. This resdual tip-tilt motion reduces the Strehl ratio of long exposure imaging by only ~ 7%.
Direct detection of photons emitted or reflected by an extrasolar planet is an extremely difficult but extremely exciting application of adaptive optics. Typical contrast levels for an extrasolar planet would be 109 - Jupiter is a billion times fainter than the sun. Current adaptive optics systems can only achieve contrast levels of 106, but so-called extreme adaptive optics systems with 104 -105 degrees of freedom could potentially detect extrasolar planets. We explore the scaling laws defining the performance of these systems, first set out by Angel (1994), and derive a different definition of an optimal system. Our sensitivity predictions are somewhat more pessimistic than the original paper, due largely to slow decorrelation timescales for some noise sources, though choosing to site an ExAO system at a location with exceptional r0 (e.g. Mauna Kea) can offset this. We also explore the effects of segment aberrations in a Keck-like telescope on ExAO; although the effects are significant, they can be mitigated through Lyot coronagraphy.
The Lick Observatory laser guide star adaptive optics system has been significantly upgraded over the past two years in order to establish it as a facility science instrument on the Shane 3 meter telescope. Natural Guide Star (NGS) mode has been in use in regular science observing programs for over a year. The Laser Guide Star (LGS) mode has been tested in engineering runs and is now starting to do science observing. In good seeing conditions, the system produces K-band Strehl ratios >0.7 (NGS) and >0.6 (LGS). In LGS mode tip/tilt guiding is achieved with a V~16 natural star anywhere inside a 1 arcminute radius field, which provides about 50% sky coverage. This enables diffraction-limited imaging of regions where few bright guidestars suitable for NGS mode are available. NGS mode requires at least a V~13 guidestar and has a sky coverage of <1%. LGS science programs will include high resolution studies of galaxies, active galactic nuclei, QSO host galaxies and dim pre-main sequence stars.
While the theory behind design of multiconjugate adaptive optics (MCAO) systems is growing, there is still a paucity of experience building and testing such instruments. We propose using the Lick adaptive optics (AO) system as a basis for demonstrating the feasibility/workability of MCAO systems, testing underlying assumptions, and experimenting with different approaches to solving MCAO system issues.
In 1999, we presented our plan to upgrade the adaptive optics (AO) system on the Lick Observatory Shane telescope (3m) from a prototype instrument pressed into field service to a facility instrument. This paper updates the progress of that plan and details several important improvements in the alignment and calibration of the AO bench. The paper also includes a discussion of the problems seen in the original design of the tip/tilt (t/t) sensor used in laser guide star mode, and how these problems were corrected with excellent results.
The wavefront controller for the Keck Observatory AO system consists of two separate real-time control loops: a tip-tilt control loop to remove tilt from the incoming wavefront, and a deformable mirror control loop to remove higher-order aberrations. In this paper, we describe these control loops and analyze their performance using diagnostic data acquired during the integration and testing of the AO system on the telescope. Disturbance rejection curves for the controllers are calculated from the experimental data and compared to theory. The residual wavefront errors due to control loop bandwidth are also calculated from the data, and possible improvements to the controller performance are discussed.
We report on observations taken during engineering science validation time using the new adaptive optics system at the 10-m Keck II Telescope. We observed Neptune and Titan at near- infrared wavelengths. These objects are ideal for adaptive optics imaging because they are bright and small, yet have many diffraction-limited resolution elements across their disks. In addition Neptune and Titan have prominent physical features, some of which change markedly with time. We have observed infrared-bright 'storms' on Neptune, and very low- albedo surface regions on Titan, Saturn's largest moon. Spatial resolution on Neptune and Titan was 0.05 - 0.06 and 0.04 - 0.05 arc sec, respectively.
KEYWORDS: Adaptive optics, Stars, Cameras, Laser guide stars, Point spread functions, Telescopes, Wavefronts, Infrared cameras, Mirrors, Signal to noise ratio
Progress and results of observations with the Lick Observatory Laser Guide Star Adaptive Optics System are presented. This system is optimized for diffraction-limited imaging in the near infrared, 1 - 2 micron wavelength bands. We describe our development efforts in a number of component areas including, a redesign of the optical bench layout, the commissioning of a new infrared science camera, and improvements to the software and user interface. There is also an ongoing effort to characterize the system performance with both natural and laser guide stars and to fold this data into a refined system model. Such a model can be used to help plan future observations, for example, predicting the point-spread function as a function of seeing and guide star magnitude.
Any adaptive optics system must be calibrated with respect to internal aberrations in order for it to properly correct the starlight before it enters the science camera. Typical internal calibration consists of using a point source stimulus at the input to the AO system and recording the wavefront at the output. Two methods for such calibration have been implemented on the adaptive optics system at Lick Observatory. The first technique, Phase Diversity, consists of taking out of focus images with the science camera and using an iterative algorithm to estimate the system wavefront. A second technique sues a newly installed instrument, the Phase-Shifting Diffraction Interferometer, which has the promise of providing very high accuracy wavefront measurements. During observing campaigns in 1998, both of these methods were used for initial calibrations. In this paper we present results and compare the two methods in regard to accuracy and their practical aspects.
Results of experiments with the laser guide star adaptive optics system on the 3-meter Shane telescope at Lick Observatory have demonstrated a factor of 4 performance improvement over previous results. Stellar images recorded at a wavelength of 2 micrometers were corrected to over 40 percent of the theoretical diffraction-limited peak intensity. For the previous two years, this sodium-layer laser guide star system has corrected stellar images at this wavelength to approximately 10 percent of the theoretical peak intensity limit. After a campaign to improve the beam quality of the laser system, and to improve calibration accuracy and stability of the adaptive optics system using new techniques for phase retrieval and phase-shifting diffraction interferometry, the system performance has been substantially increased. The next step will be to use the Lick system for astronomical science observations, and to demonstrate this level of performance with the new system being installed on the 10-meter Keck II telescope.
We present the requirements, design, and resulting new layout for the laser guide star/natural guide star adaptive optics (AO) system on the 3-meter Shane telescope at Lick Observatory. This layout transforms our engineering prototype into a stable, reliable, maintainable end-user- oriented system, suitable for use as a facility instrument. Important new features include convenient calibration using proven phase-shifting diffraction interferometer or phase- diversity techniques; a new scatter rejection in LGS mode and better guide-star selection NGS mode; high-sensitivity, wide-field acquisition camera; and significant improvements in adjustment motorization and optomechanical stability.
The performance of a sodium laser guide star adaptive optics system depends crucially on the characteristics of the laser guide star in the sodium layer. System performance is quite sensitive to sodium layer spot radiance, that is, return per unit steradian on the sky, hence we have been working to improve projected beam quality via improvements to the laser and changes to the launched beam format. The laser amplifier was reconfigured to a 'bounce-beam' geometry, which considerably improves wavefront quality and allows a larger round instead of square launch beam aperture. The smaller beacon makes it easier to block the unwanted Rayleigh light and improves the accuracy of Hartmann sensor wavefront measurements in the AO system. We present measurements of the beam quality and of the resulting sodium beacon and compare to similar measurements from last year.
Herbert Friedman, Jeffrey Cooke, Pamela Danforth, Gaylen Erbert, Mark Feldman, Donald Gavel, Sherman Jenkins, Holger Jones, Vernon Kanz, Thomas Kuklo, Michael Newman, Edward Pierce, Robert Presta, J. Thaddeus Salmon, Gary Thompson, Jen Nan Wong
A laser system to generate sodium-layer guide stars has been designed, built and delivered to the Keck Observatory in Hawaii. The system uses frequency doubled YAG lasers to pump liquid dye lasers and produces 20 W of average power. The design and performance result of this laser system are presented.
We discuss astronomical observing requirement sand their implementation using sodium-layer laser guide star adaptive optics. Specific issues requiring implementation include the ability to place the astronomical object at different locations within the field of view; reliable subtraction of Rayleigh-scattered light; efficient focusing; and stable ;point-spread-function characterization.
The Lick Observatory guide star laser has provided a beacon sufficient to close the adaptive optics loop and produce corrected images during runs in 1996 and 1997. This report summarizes measurements of the wavefront quality of the outgoing beam, photoreturn signal forth sodium beacon, and radiance distribution of the guide star on the sky, and follows with an analysis of the impact of the laser on adaptive optics system performance.
The laser guide star adaptive optics system currently being developed for the Keck 2 telescope consists of several major subsystems: the optical bench, wavefront control, user interface and supervisory control, and the laser system. The paper describes the design and implementation of the wavefront control subsystem that controls a 349 actuator deformable mirror for high order correction and tip-tilt mirrors for stabilizing the image and laser positions.
Laser guide stars have been used successfully as a reference source for adaptive optics systems. We present a possible method for utilizing laser beacons as sources for interferometric phasing. The technique would extend the sky coverage for wide baseline interferometers and allow interferometric measurement and imaging of dim objects.
Atmospheric turbulence severely limits the resolution of ground-based telescopes. Adaptive optics can correct for the aberrations caused by the atmosphere, but requires a bright wavefront reference source in close angular proximity to the object being imaged. Since natural reference stars of the necessary brightness are relatively rare, methods of generating artificial reference beacons have been under active investigation for more than a decade. In this paper, we report the first significant image improvement achieved using a sodium-layer laser guide star as a wavefront reference for a high-order adaptive optics system. An artificial beacon was created by resonant scattering from atomic sodium in the mesosphere, at an altitude of 95 km. Using this laser guide star, an adaptive optics system on the 3 m Shane Telescope at Lick Observatory produced a factor of 2.4 increase in peak intensity and a factor of 2 decrease in full width at half maximum of a stellar image, compared with image motion compensation alone. The Strehl ratio when using the laser guide star as the reference was 65% of that obtained with a natural guide star, and the image full widths at half maximum were identical, 0.3 arc sec, using either the laser or the natural guide star. This sodium-layer laser guide star technique holds great promise for the world's largest telescopes.
The 349 degree of freedom Keck adaptive optics system will be mapped on to the 36 segment Keck primary mirror. Each telescope segment is independently controlled in piston and tilt by an active control system and each segment also has its own set of aberrations. This presents a unique set of problems for the Keck adaptive optics system, not encountered with continuous primaries. To a certain extent the low order segment aberrations, beginning with focus, can be corrected statically by the adaptive optic system. However, the discontinuous surface at the segment edges present special problems in sensing and correcting wavefront with laser guide stars or natural guide stars.
The second Keck ten meter telescope (Keck-II) is slated to have an infrared-optimized adaptive optics system in the 1997 - 1998 time frame. This system will provide diffraction-limited images in the 1 - 3 micron region and the ability to use a diffraction-limited spectroscopy slit. The AO system is currently in the preliminary design phase and considerable analysis has been performed in order to predict its performance under various seeing conditions. In particular we have investigated the point-spread function, energy through a spectroscopy slit, crowded field contrast, object limiting magnitude, field of view, and sky coverage with natural and laser guide stars.
A laser guide star adaptive optics system is being built for the W. M. Keck Observatory's 10- meter Keck II telescope. Two new near infra-red instruments will be used with this system: a high-resolution camera (NIRC 2) and an echelle spectrometer (NIRSPEC). We describe the expected capabilities of these instruments for high-resolution astronomy, using adaptive optics with either a natural star or a sodium-layer laser guide star as a reference. We compare the expected performance of these planned Keck adaptive optics instruments with that predicted for the NICMOS near infra-red camera, which is scheduled to be installed on the Hubble Space Telescope in 1997.
A sodium-layer laser guide star adaptive optics system has been developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL) for use on the 3-meter Shane telescope at Lick Observatory. The system is based on a 127-actuator continuous-surface deformable mirror, a Hartmann wavefront sensor equipped with a fast-framing low-noise CCD camera, and a pulsed solid-state-pumped dye laser tuned to the atomic sodium resonance line at 589 nm. The adaptive optics system has been tested on the Shane telescope using natural reference stars yielding up to a factor of 12 increase in image peak intensity and a factor of 6.5 reduction in image full width at half maximum (FWHM). The results are consistent with theoretical expectations. The laser guide star system has been installed and operated on the Shane telescope yielding a beam with 22 W average power at 589 nm. Based on experimental data, this laser should generate an 8th magnitude guide star at this site, and the integrated laser guide star adaptive optics system should produce images with strehl ratios of 0.4 at 2.2 micrometer in median seeing and 0.7 at 2.2 micrometer in good seeing.
Standard FFT-based phase screen generation methods do not accurately model low-frequency turbulence characteristics. This paper introduces a new phase screen generation technique which uses low frequency subharmonic information to correct the problem. We compare our technique to two other subharmonic methods. The structure functions for this new method match very closely the structure functions of Kolmogorov turbulence theory.
A prototype adaptive optics system has been developed at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory for use at Lick Observatory. This system is based on an ITEK 69-actuator continuous-surface deformable mirror, a Kodak fast-framing intensified CCD camera, and a Mercury VME board containing four Intel i860 processors. The system has been tested using natural reference stars on the 40-inch Nickel telescope at Lick Observatory yielding up to a factor of 10 increase in image peak intensity and a factor of 6 reduction in image full width at half maximum. These results are consistent with theoretical expectations.
This paper discusses the design and analysis of laser-guided adaptive optic systems for the large, 8 - 10 meter class telescopes. We describe a technique for calculating the expected modulation transfer function and the point spread function for a closed loop adaptive optics system, parameterized by the degree of correction and the seeing conditions. The results agree closely with simulations and experimental data, and validate well known scaling law models even at low order correction. Scaling law model analysis of a proposed adaptive optics system at the Keck telescope leads to the conclusion that a single laser guide star beacon will be adequate for diffraction limited imaging at wavelengths between 1 and 3 micrometers with reasonable coverage of the sky. Cone anisoplanatism will dominate wavefront correction error at the visible wavelengths unless multiple laser guide stars are used.
We discuss issues in optimizing the design of adaptive optics and laser guide star systems for the Keck Telescope. The initial tip-tilt system will use Keck's chopping secondary mirror. We describe design constraints, choice of detector, and expected performance of this tip-tilt system as well as its sky coverage. The adaptive optics system is being optimized for wavelengths of 1 - 2.2 micrometers . We are studying adaptive optics concepts which use a wavefront sensor with varying numbers of subapertures, so as to respond to changing turbulence conditions. The goal is to be able to `gang together' groups of deformable mirror subapertures under software control, when conditions call for larger subapertures. We present performance predictions as a function of sky coverage and the number of deformable mirror degrees of freedom. We analyze the predicted brightness of several candidate laser guide star systems, as a function of laser power and pulse format. These predictions are used to examine the resulting Strehl as a function of observing wavelength. We discuss laser waste heat and thermal management issues, and conclude with an overview of instruments under design to take advantage of the Keck adaptive optics system.
James Brase, Jong An, Kenneth Avicola, Horst Bissinger, Herbert Friedman, Donald Gavel, Brooks Johnston, Claire Max, Scot Olivier, Robert Presta, David Rapp, J. Thaddeus Salmon, Kenneth Waltjen, William Fisher
We will describe an adaptive optics system developed for the 1 meter Nickel and 3 meter Shane telescopes at Lick Observatory. Observing wavelengths will be in the visible for the 1 meter telescope and in the near IR on the 3 meter. The adaptive optics system design is based on a 69 actuator continuous surface deformable mirror and a Hartmann wavefront sensor equipped with an intensified CCD framing camera. The system has been tested at the Cassegrain focus of the 1 meter telescope where the subaperture size is 12.5 cm. The wavefront control calculations are performed on a four processor single board computer controlled by a Unix-based system. We will describe the optical system and give details of the wavefront control system design. We will present predictions of the system performance and initial test results.
J. Thaddeus Salmon, Kenneth Avicola, James Brase, John Bergum, Herbert Friedman, Donald Gavel, Claire Max, Stephen Mostek, Scot Olivier, Robert Presta, Rodney Rinnert, Charles Swift, Kenneth Waltjen, Carolyn Weinzapfel, Jen Nan Wong
We present the design and implementation of a very compact adaptive optics system that senses the return light from a sodium guide-star and controls a deformable mirror and a pointing mirror to compensate atmospheric perturbations in the wavefront. The deformable mirror has 19 electrostrictive actuators and triangular subapertures. The wavefront sensor is a Hartmann sensor with lenslets on triangular centers. The high-bandwidth steering mirror assembly incorporates an analog controller that samples the tilt with an avalanche photodiode quad cell. An f/25 imaging leg focuses the light into a science camera that can either obtain long-exposure images or speckle data. In laboratory tests overall Strehl ratios were improved by a factor of 3 when a mylar sheet was used as an aberrator. The crossover frequency at unity gain is 30 Hz.
Kenneth Avicola, James Brase, James Morris, Horst Bissinger, Herbert Friedman, Donald Gavel, Rodney Kiefer, Claire Max, Scot Olivier, David Rapp, J. Thaddeus Salmon, David Smauley, Kenneth Waltjen
The architecture and major system components of the sodium-layer laser guide star system at LLNL will be described, and experimental results reported. The subsystems include the laser system, the beam delivery system including a pulse stretcher and beam pointing control, the beam director, and the telescope with its adaptive-optics package.
Herbert Friedman, Kenneth Avicola, Horst Bissinger, James Brase, John Duff, Donald Gavel, James Horton, Claire Max, Scot Olivier, David Rapp, J. Thaddeus Salmon, David Smauley, Kenneth Waltjen
Recent results from the Laser Guide Star Project at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory are presented. Photometry of the return signal has shown that the photon return is approximately 10 photons/cm2/ms at the pupil of the receiving telescope in agreement with a detailed model of the sodium interaction. Wavefronts of the laser guide star have also been measured with a Shack-Hartmann technique and power spectra have been shown to agree with those of nearby natural stars. Plans for closed loop demonstrations using the laser guide star at LLNL and nearby Lick Observatory are discussed.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.