Timo Stein, Philip Påhlsson, Dirk Meier, Amir Hasanbegovic, Hans Kristian Otnes Berge, Mehmet Akif Altan, Jörg Ackermann, Bahram Najafiuchevler, Suleyman Azman, Jahanzad Talebi, Alf Olsen, Codin Gheorghe, David Steenari, Petter Øya, Tor Magnus Johansen, Gunnar Maehlum
The detector readout for the Radiation-hard Electron Monitor (RADEM) aboard the JUpiter ICy moons Explorer (JUICE) uses a custom-made application-specific integrated circuit (ASIC, model: IDE3466) for the charge signal readout from silicon radiation sensors. RADEM measures the total ionizing dose and dose rate for protons (5 MeV to 250 MeV), electrons (0.3 MeV to 40 MeV) and ions. RADEM has in total three chips of the same design: one chip for the proton and ion detector, one for the electron detector, and one for the directional detector. The ASIC has 36 chargesensitive pre-amplifiers (CSA), 36 counters of 22-bits each, and one analogue output for multiplexing the pulse heights from all channels. The counters count pulses from charged particles in the silicon sensors depending on the charge magnitude and the coincidence trigger pattern from the 36 channels. We have designed the ASIC in 0.35-μm CMOS process and an ASIC wafer lot has been manufactured at AMS. This article presents the ASIC design specifications and design validation results. The preliminary results from tests with bare chips indicate that the design meets the technical requirements.
Philip Påhlsson, David Steenari, Petter Øya, Hans Kristian Otnes Berge, Dirk Meier, Alf Olsen, Amir Hasanbegovic, Mehmet Altan, Bahram Najafiuchevler, Jahanzad Talebi, Suleyman Azman, Codin Gheorghe, Jörg Ackermann, Gunnar Mæhlum, Tor Magnus Johansen, Timo Stein
This work is a continuation of our preliminary tests on NIRCA - the Near Infrared Readout and Controller ASIC [1].
The primary application for NIRCA is future astronomical science and Earth observation missions where NIRCA will be
used with mercury cadmium telluride image sensors (HgCdTe, or MCT) [2], [3]. Recently we have completed the ASIC
tests in the cryogenic environment down to 77 K. We have verified that NIRCA provides to the readout integrated circuit
(ROIC) regulated power, bias voltages, and fully programmable digital sequences with sample control of the analogue to
digital converters (ADC). Both analog and digital output from the ROIC can be acquired and image data is 8b/10bencoded
and delivered via serial interface. The NIRCA also provides temperature measurement, and monitors several
analog and digital input channels. The preliminary work confirms that NIRCA is latch-up immune and able to operate
down to 77 K. We have tested the performance of the 12-bit ADC with pre-amplifier to have 10.8 equivalent number of
bits (ENOB) at 1.4 Msps and maximum sampling speed at 2 Msps. The 1.8-V and 3.3-V output regulators and the 10-bit
DACs show good linearity and work as expected. A programmable sequencer is implemented as a micro-controller with
a custom instruction set. Here we describe the special operations of the sequencer with regards to the applications and a
novel approach to parallel real-time hardware outputs. The test results of the working prototype ASIC show good
functionality and performance from room temperature down to 77 K. The versatility of the chip makes the architecture a
possible candidate for other research areas, defense or industrial applications that require analog and digital acquisition,
voltage regulation, and digital signal generation.
Philip Påhlsson, Dirk Meier, Hans Kristian Otnes Berge, Petter Øya, David Steenari, Alf Olsen, Amir Hasanbegovic, Mehmet Altan, Bahram Najafiuchevler, Jahanzad Talebi, Suleyman Azman, Codin Gheorghe, Jörg Ackermann, Gunnar Mæhlum
In this paper we present initial test results of the Near Infrared Readout and Controller ASIC (NIRCA), designed for large area image sensors under contract from the European Space Agency (ESA) and the Norwegian Space Center. The ASIC is designed to read out image sensors based on mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe, or MCT) operating down to 77 K. IDEAS has developed, designed and initiated testing of NIRCA with promising results, showing complete functionality of all ASIC sub-components. The ASIC generates programmable digital signals to clock out the contents of an image array and to amplify, digitize and transfer the resulting pixel charge. The digital signals can be programmed into the ASIC during run-time and allows for windowing and custom readout schemes. The clocked out voltages are amplified by programmable gain amplifiers and digitized by 12-bit, 3-Msps successive approximation register (SAR) analogue-to-digital converters (ADC). Digitized data is encoded using 8-bit to 10-bit encoding and transferred over LVDS to the readout system. The ASIC will give European researchers access to high spectral sensitivity, very low noise and radiation hardened readout electronics for astronomy and Earth observation missions operating at 77 K and room temperature. The versatility of the chip makes the architecture a possible candidate for other research areas, or defense or industrial applications that require analog and digital acquisition, voltage regulation, and digital signal generation.
Dirk Meier, Hans Kristian Otnes Berge, Amir Hasanbegovic, Mehmet Altan, Bahram Najafiuchevler, Suleyman Azman, Jahanzad Talebi, Alf Olsen, Petter Øya, Philip Paahlsson, Codin Gheorghe, Gunnar Maehlum
The article describes the near infrared readout and controller ASIC (NIRCA) developed by Integrated Detector Electronics AS (IDEAS). The project aims at future astronomical science and Earth observation missions, where the ASIC will be used with image sensors based on mercury cadmium telluride (HgCdTe, or MCT). NIRCA is designed to operate from cryogenic temperatures (77 K) to higher than room temperature (328 K) and in a high radiation environment (LET > 60 MeVcm2/mg). The ASIC connects to the readout integrated circuit (ROIC) and delivers fully digitized data via serial digital output. The ASIC contains an analogue front-end (AFE) with 4 analogue-to-digital converters (ADCs) and programmable gain amplifiers with offset adjustment. The ADCs have a differential input swing of ±2 V, 12-bit resolution, and a maximum sample rate of 3 MSps. The ASIC contains a programmable sequencer (microcontroller) to generate up to 40 digital signals for the ROIC and to control the analogue front-end and DACs on the chip. The ASIC has two power supply voltage regulators that provide the ROIC with 1.8 V and 3.3 V, and programmable 10-bit DACs to generate 16 independent reference and bias voltages from 0.3 V to 3 V. In addition NIRCA allows one to read 8 external digital signals, and monitor external and internal analogue signals including onchip temperature. NIRCA can be programmed and controlled via SPI interface for all internal functions and allows data forwarding from and to the ROIC SPI interface.
Radiolabeled cells have been imaged for decades in the field of autoradiography. Recent advances in detector and
microelectronics technologies have enabled the new field of "digital autoradiography" which remains limited to ex vivo
specimens of thin tissue slices. The 3D field-of-view (FOV) of single cell imaging can be extended to millimeters if the
low energy (10-30 keV) photon emissions of radionuclides are used for single-photon nuclear imaging. This new
microscope uses a coded aperture foil made of highly attenuating elements such as gold or platinum to form the image as
a kind of "lens". The detectors used for single-photon emission microscopy are typically silicon detectors with a pixel
pitch less than 60 μm. The goal of this work is to image radiolabeled mesenchymal stem cells in vivo in an animal
model of tendon repair processes. Single-photon nuclear imaging is an attractive modality for translational medicine
since the labeled cells can be imaged simultaneously with the reparative processes by using the dual-isotope imaging
technique. The details our microscope's two-layer gold aperture and the operation of the energy-dispersive, pixellated
silicon detector are presented along with the first demonstration of energy discrimination with a 57Co source. Cell
labeling techniques have been augmented by genetic engineering with the sodium-iodide symporter, a type of reporter
gene imaging method that enables in vivo uptake of free 99mTc or an iodine isotope at a time point days or weeks after
the insertion of the genetically modified stem cells into the animal model. This microscopy work in animal research
may expand to the imaging of reporter-enabled stem cells simultaneously with the expected biological repair process in
human clinical trials of stem cell therapies.
The need to understand the behavior of individual stem cells at the various stages of their differentiation and to assess
the resulting reparative action in pre-clinical model systems, which typically involves laboratory animals, provides the
motivation for imaging of stem cells in vivo at high resolution. Our initial focus is to image cells and cellular events at
single cell resolution in vivo in shallow tissues (few mm of intervening tissue) in laboratory mice and rates. In order to
accomplish this goal we are building a SPECT-based microscope. We based our design on earlier theoretical work with
near-field coded apertures and have adjusted the components of the system to meet the real-world demands of instrument
construction and of animal imaging. Our instrumental design possesses a reasonable trade-off between field-of-view,
sensitivity, and contrast performance (photon penetration). A layered gold aperture containing 100 pinholes and
intended for use in coded aperture imaging application has been designed and constructed. A silicon detector connected
to a TimePix readout from the CERN collaborative group was selected for use in our prototype microscope because of
its ultra-high spatial and energy resolution capabilities. The combination of the source, aperture, and detector has been
modeled and the coded aperture reconstruction of simulated sources is presented in this work.
We describe a continuing design and development of MR-compatible SPECT systems for simultaneous SPECT-MR
imaging of small animals. A first generation prototype SPECT system was designed and constructed to fit inside a MRI
system with a gradient bore inner diameter of 12 cm. It consists of 3 angularly offset rings of 8 detectors (1"x1", 16x16
pixels MR-compatible solid-state CZT). A matching 24-pinhole collimator sleeve, made of a tungsten-compound,
provides projections from a common FOV of ~25 mm. A birdcage RF coil for MRI data acquisition surrounds the
collimator. The SPECT system was tested inside a clinical 3T MRI system. Minimal interference was observed on the
simultaneously acquired SPECT and MR images. We developed a sparse-view image reconstruction method based on
accurate modeling of the point response function (PRF) of each of the 24 pinholes to provide artifact-free SPECT
images. The stationary SPECT system provides relatively low resolution of 3-5 mm but high geometric efficiency of 0.5-
1.2% for fast dynamic acquisition, demonstrated in a SPECT renal kinetics study using Tc-99m DTPA. Based on these
results, a second generation prototype MR-compatible SPECT system with an outer diameter of 20 cm that fits inside a
mid-sized preclinical MRI system is being developed. It consists of 5 rings of 19 CZT detectors. The larger ring diameter
allows the use of optimized multi-pinhole collimator designs, such as high system resolution up to ~1 mm, high
geometric efficiency, or lower system resolution without collimator rotation. The anticipated performance of the new
system is supported by simulation data.
The objective of the study was to demonstrate that more than two types of materials can be effectively separated with x-ray
CT using a recently developed energy resolved photon-counting detector. We performed simulations and physical
experiments using an energy resolved photon-counting detector with six energy thresholds. For comparison, dual-kVp
CT with an integrating detector was also simulated. Iodine- and gadolinium-based contrast agents, as well as several
soft-tissue- and bone-like materials were imaged. We plotted the attenuation coefficients for the various materials in a
scatter plot for pairs of energy windows. In both simulations and physical experiments, the contrast agents were easily
separable from other non-contrast-agent materials in the scatter plot between two properly chosen energy windows. This
separation was due to discontinuities in the attenuation coefficient around their unique K-edges. The availability of more
than two energy thresholds in a photon-counting detector allowed the separation with one or more contrast agents
present. Compared with dual-kVp methods, CT with an energy resolved photon-counting detector provided a larger
separation and the freedom to use different energy window pairs to specify the desired target material. We concluded
that an energy resolved photon-counting detector with more than two thresholds allowed the separation of more than two
types of materials, e.g., soft-tissue-like, bone-like, and one or more materials with K-edges in the energy range of
interest. They provided advantages over dual-kVp CT in terms of the degree of separation and the number of materials
that can be separated simultaneously.
The overall aim of this work was to evaluate the potential for improving in vivo small animal microCT through the use of
an energy resolved photon-counting detector. To this end, we developed and evaluated a prototype microCT system
based on a second-generation photon-counting x-ray detector which simultaneously counted photons with energies above
six energy thresholds. First, we developed a threshold tuning procedure to reduce the dependence of detector uniformity
and to reduce ring artifacts. Next, we evaluated the system in terms of the contrast-to-noise ratio in different energy
windows for different target materials. These differences provided the possibility to weight the data acquired in different
windows in order to optimize the contrast-to-noise ratio. We also explored the ability of the system to use data from
different energy windows to aid in distinguishing various materials. We found that the energy discrimination capability
provided the possibility for improved contrast-to-noise ratios and allowed separation of more than two materials, e.g.,
bone, soft-tissue and one or more contrast materials having K-absorption edges in the energy ranges of interest.
The goal of the study was to investigate data acquisition strategies and image reconstruction methods for a stationary SPECT insert that can operate inside an MRI scanner with a 12 cm bore diameter for simultaneous SPECT/MRI imaging of small animals. The SPECT insert consists of 3 octagonal rings of 8 MR-compatible CZT detectors per ring surrounding a multi-pinhole (MPH) collimator sleeve. Each pinhole is constructed to project the field-of-view (FOV) to one CZT detector. All 24 pinholes are focused to a cylindrical FOV of 25 mm in diameter and 34 mm in length. The data acquisition strategies we evaluated were optional collimator rotations to improve tomographic sampling; and the image reconstruction methods were iterative
ML-EM with and without compensation for the geometric response function (GRF) of the MPH collimator.
For this purpose, we developed an analytic simulator that calculates the system matrix with the GRF models
of the MPH collimator. The simulator was used to generate projection data of a digital rod phantom with
pinhole aperture sizes of 1 mm and 2 mm and with different collimator rotation patterns. Iterative ML-EM
reconstruction with and without GRF compensation were used to reconstruct the projection data from the
central ring of 8 detectors only, and from all 24 detectors. Our results indicated that without GRF compensation
and at the default design of 24 projection views, the reconstructed images had significant artifacts. Accurate
GRF compensation substantially improved the reconstructed image resolution and reduced image artifacts. With accurate GRF compensation, useful reconstructed images can be obtained using 24 projection views only. This last finding potentially enables dynamic SPECT (and/or MRI) studies in small animals, one of many possible application areas of the SPECT/MRI system. Further research efforts are warranted including experimentally measuring the system matrix for improved geometrical accuracy, incorporating the co-registered MRI image in SPECT reconstruction, and exploring potential applications of the simultaneous SPECT/MRI SA system including dynamic SPECT studies.
Cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe, or CZT) is a room-temperature semiconductor radiation detector that has been
developed in recent years for a variety of applications. CZT has been investigated for many potential uses in medical
imaging, especially in the field of single photon emission computed tomography (SPECT). CZT can also be used in
positron emission tomography (PET) as well as photon-counting and integration-mode x-ray radiography and computed
tomography (CT). The principal advantages of CZT are 1) direct conversion of x-ray or gamma-ray energy into
electron-hole pairs; 2) energy resolution; 3) high spatial resolution and hence high space-bandwidth product; 4) room
temperature operation, stable performance, high density, and small volume; 5) depth-of-interaction (DOI) available
through signal processing. These advantages will be described in detail with examples from our own CZT systems. The
ability to operate at room temperature, combined with DOI and very small pixels, make the use of multiple, stationary
CZT "mini-gamma cameras" a realistic alternative to today's large Anger-type cameras that require motion to obtain
tomographic sampling. The compatibility of CZT with Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI)-fields is demonstrated for
a new type of multi-modality medical imaging, namely SPECT/MRI. For pre-clinical (i.e., laboratory animal) imaging,
the advantages of CZT lie in spatial and energy resolution, small volume, automated quality control, and the potential for
DOI for parallax removal in pinhole imaging. For clinical imaging, the imaging of radiographically dense breasts with
CZT enables scatter rejection and hence improved contrast. Examples of clinical breast images with a dual-head CZT
system are shown.
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