The Microelectronics Research Group (MRG) at The University of Western Australia is a key partner of the Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence for Transformative Meta-Optical Systems. In this presentation, an overview of ongoing research will be given with an emphasis on the flagship research activities of MCT-based imaging arrays and Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS). The MCT research and development utilise a vertically integrated capability from semiconductor material growth, through device modelling and design, to focal-plane-array fabrication and packaging. In support of the detector array capability, fully integrated MEMS technology can be used to further enhance the sensor device performance through the focal plane integration of tunable filters for spectral classification and infrared spectroscopy. The combination of high-performance detector designs and tunable spectral filters provides a major differentiator for military imaging systems, particularly for those operating in complex and degraded environments. This talk will highlight several research activities that are highly relevant to defence applications including metamaterial enhanced infrared detectors, and the fabrication of infra-red focal plane arrays on flexible substrates. For the MEMS technology, both wideband and narrowband tunable spectral filters will be discussed for multispectral imaging in the SWIR, MWIR and LWIR bands, and for hyperspectral imaging and spectroscopy. Considerations on future research activities and technology trends will be presented including opportunities for the rapid development of high-performance and spectrally adaptive low SWaP sensing systems for enhanced detection and discrimination of partially concealed or camouflaged targets in cluttered backgrounds.
While agile multispectral imaging solutions presently exist, their size, weight and power (SWaP) specifications prevents deployment on small portable platforms such as drones. As much of the size and weight of existing solutions is attributed to the wavelength-selective optical subsystem, realizing low-SWaP hinges on miniaturization of this subsystem. The ultimate multispectral imaging implementation would integrate the wavelength-selective component at the imaging focal plane array. This paper presents a solution which aims to achieve such integration. Recent developments in Microelectromechanical Systems (MEMS) have realized a surface-micromachined optical tunable filter, operating in the shortwave infrared wavelength band (SWIR: 1 μm – 2.6 μm) for applications in miniature optical spectrometers. The tunable filter is a Fabry-Perot (FP) structure, composed of a fixed dielectric mirror on a silicon substrate, and a movable dielectric mirror suspended above. The separation (air gap) between these two mirrors defines the optical transmission centre-wavelength of this Fabry Perot structure. Consequently, electrostatic actuation of the top mirror towards the bottom mirror allows the gap, and thus the transmission centre-wavelength, to be controlled. This paper presents work towards integration of such a MEMS tunable filter technology directly on an infrared focal plan array. Realizing this integration relies on: (1) expanding the optical area of the MEMS Fabry Perot structure to cover a significant portion of the two-dimensional focal plan array, which is generally multi-millimetre in each of its two dimensions; and (2) devising a structure that will allow actuation of the MEMS filter with under 20 V.
Preliminary data obtained with PS-OCT through the eyes of hypertensives suggests a mechanistic connection between arterial health and hypertension. In this study we want to determine whether arterial health may be more predictive of negative clinical outcomes than hypertension and blood glucose. Patients with various stages of hypertension, diabetes and coronary artery disease were recruited from Fiona Stanley Hospital (Perth). They were subsequently imaged with PS-OCT. The data were analyzed for retinal vessel wall thickness and vessel wall birefringence. We demonstrated that the combination of blood vessel wall tissue structure and wall thickness, a recognized clinical biomarker (Afsharan et al, BOE, 2021), could diagnose hypertension and diabetes with high sensitivity and specificity. PS-OCT measurements can detect the smallest changes related to cardiovascular disease in the retina before the disease manifests itself clinically. The method is cheap, noninvasive and easy to apply, which makes it highly suitable for screening, especially in underserved communities.
SignificancePost-burn scars and scar contractures present significant challenges in burn injury management, necessitating accurate evaluation of the wound healing process to prevent or minimize complications. Non-invasive and accurate assessment of burn scar vascularity can offer valuable insights for evaluations of wound healing. Optical coherence tomography (OCT) and OCT angiography (OCTA) are promising imaging techniques that may enhance patient-centered care and satisfaction by providing detailed analyses of the healing process.AimOur study investigates the capabilities of OCT and OCTA for acquiring information on blood vessels in burn scars and evaluates the feasibility of utilizing this information to assess burn scars.ApproachHealthy skin and neighboring scar data from nine burn patients were obtained using OCT and processed with speckle decorrelation, Doppler OCT, and an enhanced technique based on joint spectral and time domain OCT. These methods facilitated the assessment of vascular structure and blood flow velocity in both healthy skin and scar tissues. Analyzing these parameters allowed for objective comparisons between normal skin and burn scars.ResultsOur study found that blood vessel distribution in burn scars significantly differs from that in healthy skin. Burn scars exhibit increased vascularization, featuring less uniformity and lacking the intricate branching network found in healthy tissue. Specifically, the density of the vessels in burn scars is 67% higher than in healthy tissue, while axial flow velocity in burn scar vessels is 25% faster than in healthy tissue.ConclusionsOur research demonstrates the feasibility of OCT and OCTA as burn scar assessment tools. By implementing these technologies, we can distinguish between scar and healthy tissue based on its vascular structure, providing evidence of their practicality in evaluating burn scar severity and progression.
We examine the use of foundry process optical waveguide couplers in making 1 × 2 optical switches. The concept involves a post-foundry process to provide a moveable dielectric load over one of the waveguides in the coupler, such that the dielectric load changes the propagation constant of the affected waveguide depending on its proximity to the waveguide. Coupled mode theory is employed to explain the operation of the switch and identify key requirements of the dielectric load. Finite difference time domain simulations are employed to verify that the concept is viable for two standard photonic integrated circuit platforms. The concept ensures that the optical signals are always constrained within the high-quality foundry process waveguides while also allowing the material and lithography requirements for the layer in which the movable load is realized to be relaxed. Results show that a contrast between the switch ports of >20 dB is possible with relaxed tolerances for the dielectric load layer, at an operating wavelength of 1550 nm. We envision that the dielectric load would be moved by a micro-electromechanical systems actuator. Having the optical signals always within the foundry waveguides will permit fabrication of high-performance mechanically switched optical systems by a wide range of facilities.
Future remote imaging systems promise spectroscopic functionalities extending well beyond the visible wavelengths. This allows real-time spectral information to be gathered from multiple wavelength bands which is highly attractive for numerous remote sensing spectroscopy/imaging applications and aids target recognition. This paper briefly presents a micro-electromechanical systems (MEMS) based electrically tuneable adaptive filter technology developed for the technologically important infrared (IR) bands of the electromagnetic spectrum and reports on the progress towards extension to the significantly longer wavelength THz band. The demonstrated concepts focus on merging MEMSenabled dynamic modulation with the spectral sensitivity and selectivity of metamaterials, as well as on the possibility of adopting the rapidly evolving 3D printing technologies.
This paper presents a proof-of-concept for microelectromechanical system (MEMS)-based fixed cavity Fabry–Pérot interferometers (FPIs) operating in the long-wavelength infrared (LWIR, 8 to 12 μm) region. This work reports for the first time on the use of low-index BaF2 thin films in combination with Ge high-index thin films for such applications. Extremely flat and stress-free ∼3-μm-thick free-standing distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) are also presented in this article, which were realized using thick lift-off of a trilayer structure fabricated using Ge and BaF2 optical layers. A peak-to-peak flatness was achieved for free-standing surface micromachined structures within the range of 10 to 20 nm across large spatial dimensions of several hundred micrometers. Finally, the optical characteristics of narrowband LWIR fixed cavity FPIs are also presented with a view toward the future realization of tunable wavelength MEMS-based spectrometers for spectral sensing. The measured optical characteristics of released FPIs agree with the modeled optical response after taking into consideration the fabrication-induced imperfections in the free-standing top DBR such as an average tilt of 15 nm and surface roughness of 25 nm. The fabricated FPIs are shown to have a linewidth of ∼110 nm and a suitable peak transmittance value of ∼50 % , which meets the requirements for their utilization in tunable MEMS-based LWIR spectroscopic sensing and imaging applications requiring spectral discrimination with narrow linewidth.
The anticipated feature of future generation remote infrared (IR) sensing and imaging technologies includes adding so called multi-colour capabilities. Such enhancement of the current state-of-the-art IR detector and imaging focal plane array (FPA) technologies allows real-time spectral information to be gathered from multiple wavelength bands. Multi/hyper-spectral imaging results in improved target recognition and is applicable to numerous remote sensing spectroscopy/imaging applications. In order to provide a reduced size, weight and power (SWaP) solution, a micro electromechanical systems (MEMS) based electrically tuneable adaptive filter technology has been developed for important IR bands of the electromagnetic spectrum. The adopted approach is capable of delivering on-chip remote hyper/multi-spectral sensing by obtaining narrow-band spectral sensitivity utilising a tuneable MEMS optical filter fabricated directly on a detector. This paper summarizes the performance demonstrated within the most technologically relevant bands of short-wave IR (SWIR, 1.4-2.5 µm), mid-wave IR (MWIR, 3-5 µm), and long-wave IR (LWIR, 8-12 µm). In SWIR, the demonstrated nanometer-scale uniformity in the flatness of suspended MEMS allows for spatial uniformity of the filtered peak centre wavelength and the achieved 30-35 nm spectral width to remain within single nanometers over 500µm x 500µm optical apertures. In LWIR, the spatial peak wavelength selectivity variation is achieved to be less than 1.2% across 200μm × 200μm optical imaging areas, exceeding the requirements for passive multispectral thermal imaging and validating the suitability for mechanically robust multi/hyper-spectral remote sensing and imaging applications deployable on low-SWaP field-portable platforms.
High performance distributed Bragg reflectors (DBRs) are key elements to achieving high finesse MEMS-based Fabry–Pérot interferometers (FPIs). Suitable mechanical parameters combined with high contrast between the refractive indices of the constituent optical materials are the main requirements. In this paper, Germanium (Ge) and barium fluoride (BaF2) optical thin-films have been investigated for mid-wave infrared (MWIR) and long-wave infrared (LWIR) filter applications. Thin-film deposition and fabrication processes were optimised to achieve mechanical and optical properties that provide flat suspended structures with uniform thickness and maximum reflectivity. Ge-BaF2-Ge 3-layer solid-material DBRs have been fabricated that matched the predicted simulation performance, although a degradation in performance was observed for wavelengths beyond 10 μm that is associated with optical absorption in the BaF2 material. Ge-Air-Ge 3-layer air-gap DBRs, in which air rather than BaF2 served as the low refractive index layer, were realized to exhibit layer flatness at the level of 10 to 20 nm across lateral DBR dimensions of several hundred micrometers. Measured DBR reflectance was found to be ≳90 % over the entire wavelength range of the MWIR band and for the LWIR band up to a wavelength of 11 μm. Simulations based on the measured DBR reflectance indicates that MEMS-based FPIs are able to achieve a peak transmission of ≳90 % over the entire MWIR band and up to 10 μm in the LWIR band, with a corresponding spectral passband of ≲50 nm in the MWIR and <80 nm in the LWIR.
High performance tunable absorbers for terahertz (THz) frequencies will be crucial in advancing applications such as single-pixel imaging and spectroscopy. Metamaterials provide many new possibilities for manipulating electromagnetic waves at the subwavelength scale. Due to the limited response of natural materials to terahertz radiation, metamaterials in this frequency band are of particular interest.
The realization of a high-performance tunable (THz) absorber based on microelectromechanical system (MEMS) is challenging, primarily due to the severe mismatch between the actuation range of most MEMS (on the order of 1-10 microns) and THz wavelengths on the order of 100-1000 microns. Based on a metamaterial design that has an electromagnetic response that is extremely position sensitive, we combine meta-atoms with suspended at membranes that can be driven electrostatically. This is demonstrated by using near-field coupling of the meta-atoms to create a substantial change in the resonant frequency.
The devices created in this manner are among the best-performing tunable THz absorbers demonstrated to date, with an ultrathin device thickness ( 1/50 of the working wavelength), absorption varying between 60% and 80% in the initial state when the membranes remain suspended, and with a fast switching speed ( 27 us). In the snap-down state, the resonance shifts by γ >200% of the linewidth (14% of the initial resonance frequency), and the absorption modulation measured at the initial resonance can reach 65%.
While optical spectroscopy has shown great promise in a multitude of applications, the cost, size, and fragility of spectrometer instruments have hindered widespread application of the technology. :tvfEMS microspectrometers offer great hope for low-cost, lightweight, and robust spectrometers, paving the way for pervasive use in many fields. In this invited paper, we report on nearly 15 years of development on MEMS spectrometers in our research group, beginning with devices designed for the shortwave infrared (SWIR) and midwave infrared (MWIR), and moving on to our most recent work towards MEMS spectrometers in the visible and near infrared (NIR) as well as the thermal long-wave infrared (LWIR) bands.
A miniature Fabry-Perot etalon was designed and fabricated to provide spectral filtering capability at the resonance
wavelength of 10 μm. A high transmission peak of 85% and a relatively broad bandwidth of 500 nm are expected based
on optical modeling. Optimal deposition conditions for process durable thin film materials were developed and optical
constants of these materials were characterized. Fabrication of devices was accomplished using standard surface
micromachining technique. Released mirrors exhibited a deflection of 400 nm over a length of 150 μm.
Future improvements in spectral imaging systems can be attained through the integration of MEMS-based optical transmission devices matched with pixelated arrays. Such integrated module designs will require a detailed knowledge of the MEMS device optical properties at high spatial resolution and over a wide range of operating conditions. A substantially automated low-cost optical characterization system has been developed, which enables the optical transmission of the MEMS device be measured with high spatial and spectral precision. This Optical Metrology System (OMS) can focus light on the device under test (DUT) to a spot diameter of less than 30 μm, and characterize devices at near infrared for wavelengths within the spectral band from 1.4 μm to 2.6 μm. A future upgrade to the OMS will enable measurements to be carried out across a wide range of DUT temperatures and with a spectral range from visible to long wave infrared wavelengths.
This work focuses on the development of a cryogenic optical profilometry system for the measurement of material properties of thin films across a wide temperature range. A cryostat was machined and integrated with a Zygo NewView 600K optical profilometer and vacuum system. Curvature data were taken for a SiNx thin film on a GaAs substrate from 300 K down to 80 K. From the curvature data, the coefficient of thermal expansion was calculated. The cryogenic optical profilometry system was benchmarked with a three beam curvature technique, and demonstrated excellent agreement across the full temperature range from 300 K to 80 K
This paper reports on the modeling and experimental investigation of optical excitation of silicon cantilevers.
In this work, the silicon cantilevers fabricated have dimensions with width of 15 μm, thickness of 0.26 μm,
and variable length from 50 to 120 μm. In order to investigate the effect of the laser modulation frequency
and position on the temperature at the anchor edge and displacements at the tip of cantilevers, a transient
thermal ANSYS simulation and a steady-state static thermal mechanical ANSYS simulation were undertaken
using a structure consisting of silicon device layer, SiO2 sacrificial layer and silicon substrate. The dynamic
properties of silicon cantilevers were undertaken by a series of experiments. The period optical driving signal
with controlled modulation amplitude was provided by a 405 nm diode laser with a 2.9 μW/μm2 laser power
and variable frequencies. The laser spot was located through the longitude direction of silicon cantilevers. In
factor, simulation results well matched with experimental observation, including: 1) for untreated silicon
cantilevers, the maximum of displacement is observed when the laser beam was located half a diameter way
from the anchor on the silicon suspended cantilever side; 2) for the both cantilevers, maximum displacement
occurs when the optical actuation frequency is equal to the resonant frequency of cantilevers. Understanding
the optical excitation on silicon cantilevers, as waveguides, can potentially increase sensing detection
sensitivity (ratio of transmission to cantilever deflection).
Cavity ringdown spectroscopy (CRDS) measures the decay time, of a resonant optical cavity containing a measurand, as
a function of optical frequency. The measurand is identified and quantified by the cavity decay time, which is modified
by the measurand within. As coupling light into a high-finesse optical cavity is difficult, the throughput of the cavity is
small. A recent variant, swept-cavity heterodyne CRDS, interferes backward escaping cavity light, with light reflected
from the cavity input mirror, providing better signal sensitivity due to the heterodyne advantage. The measured
interference signal is demodulated and log-amplified to produce a signal whose slope is representative of the cavity
decay time. This paper, for the first time, examines the conditions required for high-fidelity measurements of the cavity
decay time using swept-cavity heterodyne CRDS and log-amplification technique. We demonstrate that, due to the very
large bandwidth and dynamic range of the log-amplifier, for realistic measurement conditions, the log-amplifier does not
impose any significant restrictions on the measurement accuracy. We also demonstrate, however, the measurement
accuracy is limited by two factors, the detector bandwidth, and segment of acquired data used to measure the slope.
We examine the problem of simultaneous drive and capacitance sensing, on a microelectromechanical systems (MEMS)
device, where the drive is a bipolar AC waveform. The attention of this paper is particularly focused on wavelength
calibration of the microspectrometer, a MEMS micromachined Fabry Perot filter monolithically integrated with a
photodetector. However, this work is also very pertinent to other bipolar AC driven MEMS devices, which presently use
separate measurement MEMS structures. To avoid charging effects, the microspectrometer must be driven by an
AC waveform and, the only option for capacitance measurement is to do so simultaneously, on the same terminals, as
the drive waveform is applied. We propose a novel differential capacitive sensing circuit to determine the centre
wavelength of the MEMS-based micro-spectrometer, allowing closed-loop control of the microspectrometer's centre
wavelength. Automatic calibration can be realized with the addition of a known light source.
In this article the design, fabrication and characterization of micro-Fabry-Perot filters operating in the mid-wavelength infrared range is presented. Using surface micromachining techniques, low temperature silicon nitride based structures with distributed Bragg mirrors made of Ge/SiO/Ge layers have been fabricated and tested, both mechanically and optically. The membrane/mirror deflection has been measured using an optical profilometer and is estimated to be of the order of 800nm with voltage bias up to 17V while still preserving good mirror parallelism. The respective optical transmission peak shifted from 4.5μm to 3.6μm. Without antireflection coating at the back of the silicon substrate ~50% maximum transmission has been measured at the resonance peaks. The FWHM was measured to be 210+/-20nm, which is ~20% larger than estimated theoretically. In agreement with theoretical modeling, after crossing 1/3 of the cavity length, the membrane/mirror structure has been found to enter into an unstable region followed by snap-down to the bottom mirror surface. In order to prevent this detrimental effect, membranes with anti-stiction bumps have been fabricated demonstrating repeatable structure recovery from the stage of full collapse.
A low temperature MEMS process integrated with an infrared detector technology has been developed. The integrated microsystem is capable of electrically selecting narrow wavelength bands in the range from 1.6 to 2.5 μm within the short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The integrated fabrication process is compatible with two-dimensional infrared focal plane array technology. The demonstration prototypes consist of both HgCdTe SWIR photoconductive as well as high density vertically integrated photodiode (HDVIP®) detectors, two distributed Bragg mirrors formed of Ge-SiO-Ge, an air-gap optical cavity, and a silicon nitride membrane for structural support. The tuning spectrum from fabricated MEMS filters on photoconductive detectors indicates a wide tuning range and high percentage transmission. Tuning is achieved with a voltage of only 7.5 V, and the FWHM ranged from 95-105 nm over a tuning range of 2.2 μm to 1.85 μm. The same MEMS filters, though unreleased, and with the sacrificial layer within the optical cavity, have been fabricated on planarised SWIR HDVIP® photodiodes with FWHM of less than 60 nm centred at a wavelength of approximately 1.8 μm. Finite element modelling of various geometries for the silicon nitride membrane will also be presented. The modelling is used to optimize the filter geometry in terms of fill factor, mirror displacement versus applied voltage, and membrane bowing.
A monolithically integrated low temperature MEMS and HgCdTe infrared detector technology has been implemented and characterised. The MEMS-based optical filter, integrated with an infrared detector, selects narrow wavelength bands in the range from 1.6 to 2.5 μm within the short-wavelength infrared (SWIR) region of the electromagnetic spectrum. The entire fabrication process is compatible with two-dimensional infrared focal plane array technology. The fabricated device consists of an HgCdTe SWIR photoconductor, two distributed Bragg mirrors formed of Ge-SiO-Ge, a sacrificial spacer layer within the cavity, which is then removed to leave an air-gap, and a silicon nitride membrane for structural support. The tuning spectrum from fabricated MEMS filters on photoconductive detectors shows a wide tuning range and high percentage transmission is achieved with a tuning voltage of only 7.5 V. The FWHM ranged from 95-105 nm over a tuning range of 2.2 μm to 1.85 μm. Finite element modelling of various geometries for the silicon nitride membrane will also be presented. The modelling is used to determine the best geometry in terms of fill factor, voltage displacement prediction and membrane bowing.
We demonstrate tomographic imaging of the refractive index of turbid media using bifocal optical coherence refractometry (BOCR). The technique, which is a variant of optical coherence tomography, is based on measurement of the optical pathlength difference between two foci simultaneously present in the medium of interest. We describe a new method to axially shift the bifocal optical pathlength, thus, avoiding the need to physically relocate the objective lens or the sample during an axial scan, and present an experimental realization based on an adaptive liquid-crystal lens. We present experimental results, which demonstrate refractive index tomography of a range of turbid liquid samples, and also in situ living tissue. BOCR has potential for in vivo refractive index tomography of biological tissue.
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