The integration of flexible photonics into high value composite structures, such as those made of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Polymer (CFRP) offers new intelligent sensing capability for sustainable manufacture and through-life structural monitoring. Through utilisation of the planar functionality offered by flexible photonics, within these composite matrices, enables the creation of new intelligent structures for a host of sectors including aerospace, clean energy infrastructure and automotive.
This presentation highlights the design considerations needed when integrating flexible photonics into fibre reinforced polymers (FRPs) and highlights some promising opportunities that showcase specific demonstrations achieved for flexible planar doped silica. Notable applications, such as scalable tri-axial strain sensing and the implementation of a branching optical network architecture within an FRP composite, will be presented to illustrate the new functionality offered.
Over last decade, ultrafast lasers became industrially viable tool for high precision material processing. Ability to modify in the bulk of transparent materials is one of unique attributes of this technology. This have been successfully used for glass cutting, implementation of photonic circuits and microfluidic chips, local engineering of optical fibre properties.
This talk will explore how ultrafast lasers can be used to engineer optical scattering systems. The exploitation of this process for developing low loss distributed sensing systems and compact optical spectrometer will be discussed and demonstrated.
We present the use of holographic UV writing to fabricate 2D grating couplers in doped planar silica-on-silicon, enabling the creation of large (~1 cm) and efficient circular beam delivery into free space. Our fabrication process inscribes a channel waveguide with in-plane 60° blazed grating to expand a fibre-coupled beam within a planar core layer, followed by an out-of-plane 45° blazed grating to couple light out of the substrate. Our out-of-plane gratings are fabricated using a modified interferometric arrangement with a prism and index matching water layer, the arrangement and latest results will be presented here.
Integrated Optical Fibre (IOF) allows for robust planar integration and seamless monolithic coupling. Fabrication is achieved through an adapted Flame Hydrolysis Deposition (FHD) technique, which forms a ruggedized glass alloy between the fibre and planar substrate. It has been previously demonstrated as a low linewidth external cavity lasers diode and a hot-wire anemometer, inherently suitable for harsh environments.
This work looks at implementing the platform for harsh environment refractometry, in particular monitoring hydrocarbon fuels in the C14 to C20 range (e.g. Jet A1 and diesel). The platform uses SMF-28 fibre and direct UV written Bragg gratings to infer refractive index and thus the quality of the fuel. A challenge arises as the refractive index of these fuels are typically greater than the refractive index of the waveguide. Therefore, the guided mode operation of FBG refractometers is unsuitable. This work uniquely reports leaky mode operation and a regression analysis, inferring propagation loss through changes in amplitude of successive gratings. In effect, the proposed methodology utilises the imaginary part of the effective index as opposed to the real part, typically used by such sensors.
Initial results have shown a 350 (dB/cm)/riu sensitivity is achievable above a refractive index of 1.45. This was measured for a SMF-28 fibre wet etched to 30 µm and planarized. Considering a 0.01 dB/cm propagation loss resolution, refractive index changes of the order 10-5 can be approached.
Work will be presented on the fabrication of an IOF platform for refractometers as well as metrics for survivability in harsh environments.
Direct UV writing is a technique capable of fabricating low-loss channel waveguides, couplers and Bragg gratings in planar silica devices by translating an appropriate substrate through a tightly focused UV beam. To date direct UV written waveguides have been primarily formed using 244nm laser light, relying on the photosensitivity provided by doping with germanium and boron. To induce sufficient refractive index change, necessary for wave guiding, the substrates also require hydrogenation prior to UV writing. Not only does this require additional processing but over time the hydrogen present within the silica out-diffuses, which can cause variation of the final written structures. Deep-UV light, with a wavelength of 213 nm, has previously been used to inscribe strong fibre Bragg gratings (FBGs) in hydrogen-free Ge-doped fibres. Here we present the use of a 213 nm UV laser to write planar waveguide devices without the need for hydrogen loading.
Flame Hydrolysis Deposition (FHD) was used to deposit core and cladding layers of doped silica onto a thermally oxidised silicon wafer. Individual planar chips were diced from this wafer and a 5th harmonic Q-switched solid state laser operating at 213 nm wavelength was used to inscribe waveguides within the germanium-doped core layer of the chips without prior hydrogen loading.
We shall present our latest results of direct deep-UV written waveguides, including; the characterisation of single mode waveguides, detailed fluence and loss measurements, induced refractive index change and the first demonstration of planar Bragg gratings and photonic structures written with 213nm light.
We demonstrate the fabrication of a mechanically robust planarised fibre-FHD optical composite. Fabrication is achieved through deposition and consolidation of optical grade silica soot on to both an optical fibre and planar substrate. The consolidated silica acts in joining the fibre and planar substrate both mechanically and optically. The concept lends itself to applications where long interaction lengths (order of tens of centimetres) and optical interaction via a planar waveguide are required, such as pump schemes, precision layup of fibre optics and hybrid fibre-planar devices. This paper considers the developments in fabrication process that enable component development.
A pair of external cavity diode lasers are fabricated using an integrated planar Bragg grating. The planar waveguide and Bragg reflector is UV-written within a glass-on-silicon chip. Intensity isolated, continuous wavelength tuning at > 1kHz modulation rate is acheived using micro-heating elements fabricated directly over the Bragg grating. Low RIN (<140dB) and low linewidth (δν ~ 200 kHz) operation is found using a heterodyne measurement. We demonstrate the lasers operating in phase-locked loop configuration where one laser is frequency-offset locked to the other.
Integrated optics is becoming increasingly important for applications in quantum information processing, quantum
sensing and for advanced measurement. Intrinsically stable and low-loss it provides essential routing and coupling for
quantum optical experiments offering functions such as interconnects, couplers, phase delays and routing. Silica-onsilicon
has particular attractions, and in this work the fabrication approaches and advantages of the technique will be
explored. In particular, UV direct writing of waveguides and Bragg gratings proves useful for its rapid-prototyping
capability and its ability to provide grating for characterization of components for loss, birefringence and coupling ratio.
This review concentrates on the fabrication of planar waveguide devices, and ways in which direct UV writing provides
important functionality. Examples of applications of silica-on-silicon waveguides include quantum enhanced
interferometry, teleportation, boson sampling as well as hybrid operation for single photon detection with transition edge
sensors directly placed onto waveguide devices.
We present results of comprehensive re-design of an arrayed waveguide grating (AWG)-based integrated photonic spectrograph (IPS), using Silica-on-Silicon (SOS) technology, to tailor specific performance parameters of interest to high-resolution (resolving power, R = λ/Δλ= 60,000) exoplanet astronomy and stellar seismology. The compactness, modularity, stability, replicability and small-lightweight-payload of the IPS are a few promising and innovative features in the design of high-resolution spectrographs for astronomy or other areas of sciences. The IPS is designed to resolve up to 646 spectral lines per spectral order, with a wavelength spacing of 25 pm, at a central wavelength of 1630 nm (Hband). The fabricated test waveguides have been stress engineered in order to compensate the inherent birefringence of SOS waveguides. The birefringence values of fabricated test structures were quantified, to be on the order 10-6 (theoretical value required to avoid the formation of ghost-images), through inscription of Bragg-gratings on straight waveguides and subsequent measurement of Bragg-reflection spectra. An interferometer system has been integrated with the SOS-IPS (in the same chip) for the characterization of phase errors of the waveguide array. Moreover, promising results of first fabricated key photonics components to form other complex integrated photonic circuits (IPCs), such as astro-interferometers, using silicon nitride-on-insulator (SNOI) technology are also presented. The fabricated IPCs include multimode interference based devices (power splitter/combiners, optical cross/bar-switches), directional-couplers with varying power ratios, Mach-Zehnder interferometers and an AWG. The first results of annealed, low-hydrogen SNOI based devices are promising and comparable to SOI and commercial devices, with device excess-loss less than 2 dB and under 1 dB/cm waveguide-loss in the IR-wavelength.
Gravity is one of the second-generation instruments of the Very Large Telescope Interferometer that operates in the near infrared range and that is designed for precision narrow-angle astrometry and interferometric imaging. With its infrared wavefront sensors, pupil stabilization, fringe tracker, and metrology, the instrument is tailored to provide a high sensitivity, imaging with 4-millisecond resolution, and astrometry with a 10μarcsec precision. It will probe physics close to the event horizon of the Galactic Centre black hole, and allow to study mass accretion and jets in young stellar objects and active galactic nuclei, planet formation in circumstellar discs, or detect and measure the masses of black holes in massive star clusters throughout the Milky Way. As the instrument required an outstanding level of precision and stability, integrated optics has been chosen to collect and combine the four VLTI beams in the K band. A dedicated integrated optics chip glued to a fiber array has been developed. Technology breakthroughs have been mandatory to fulfill all the specifications. This paper is focused on the interferometric beam combination system of Gravity. Once the combiner concept described, the paper details the developments that have been led, the integration and the performance of the assemblies.
Ductile regime dicing has been used to machine a variety of optical materials to produce waveguides for lasers, multimode
interference devices and non-linear devices. However, few papers discuss the properties of the machining, either
qualitatively or quantitatively. In this work ductile regime dicing of germanium, Yttrium Aluminum Garnet (YAG),
lithium niobate and silicon for photonic applications are reported. Machining parameters are discussed, surface
micrographs shown, and surface roughnesses are calculated for each sidewall machined. The sidewall average surface
roughnesses (Sa) were measured to be 2.1 nm for germanium, 3.5 nm for YAG, 7.9 nm for lithium niobate and 8.6 nm
for silicon.
The potential of a new class of multifunctional photonic circuits is demonstrated by femtosecond laser micro-machining and inscription of micro-optical structures, such as ring and disk resonators, Mach-Zehnder interferometers, and microfluidic devices, in a flexible flat-fibre chip. Additional filling of surface channels with functional materials is employed towards sensing applications. Furthermore, direct write femtosecond-laser inscribed Bragg gratings were written in the Ge-doped core of flat-fibre enabling a number of relevant applications. The flat-fibre platform offers a unique degree of freedom by allowing surface and sub-surface devices to be integrated onto an a single optical chip with the potential for straightforward incorporation into integrated photonic circuits or optofluidic devices.
An optomechanical dual cantilever device has been fabricated with applications as a displacement sensor and variable attenuator. A novel fabrication approach using a precision dicing saw has benefits for fabrication time, cost and energy consumption. The displacement sensor sensitivity is 0.8 dB/micron and a suppression ratio of 25 dB is obtained when the device is used as an attenuator.
The authors present a direct UV writing approach to fabricate fiber Bragg gratings (FBGs) and gratings in
photolithographic waveguides. The technique uses two coherent UV beams, which are focused to a small spot (~7μm
diameter) at the point at which they overlap. The resulting interference pattern at the foci consists of fringes which are
used to define several grating planes per exposure, giving greater design flexibility and a significantly larger accessible
spectral range compared to traditional approaches. The typical index contrast during grating fabrication is observed to be
4.7×10-3, at writing speeds of 8 mm/min.
Conventional singlemode semiconductor DFB and VCSEL lasers used in high resolution spectroscopy are often required to operate at specific, custom wavelengths, such as those associated with gas absorption lines. We present the results of work to develop alternative sources in the 1550nm and 1650nm regions, the latter coinciding with an absorption line of methane. Custom wavelength Bragg gratings have been used to stabilize the output of external cavity lasers implemented in both optical fiber and planar silica-on-silicon integrated circuits, using commercially available semiconductor gain chips, to give laser output at 1648 and 1649 nm, respectively. Thermal expansion or mechanical strain of the Bragg grating offers a suitable wavelength tuning mechanism. Results are presented including the wavelength tuning range, output power, relative intensity noise (RIN), side-mode suppression and linewidth of devices for application in high resolution gas spectroscopy. The different methods of writing Bragg gratings in optical fiber and planar silica-on-silicon allow a high degree of flexibility in the choice of emission wavelength.
We demonstrate femtosecond laser micro-machining and inscription of micro-optical structures, such as ring and disk resonators, Mach-Zender interferometers, and complex microfluidic devices, in a novel optical flat-fibre chip. In addition, we fill the channels with functional materials that can be used for sensing applications. Furthermore, direct write femtosecond-laser inscribed Bragg gratings are written in the Ge-doped flat-fibre core at 1547.8 nm. The flat-fibre chip offers a unique degree of freedom by allowing surface and sub-surface devices to be integrated onto an optical platform with the potential for straightforward incorporation into integrated photonic circuits or optofluidic devices.
We have demonstrated two monolithically integrated Bragg grating based accelerometers, both with the optical path and mechanical structure being made from the same substrate. The unique fabrication techniques, Direct UV Writing and precision dicing, used to create the glass microcantilevers are discussed. We show experimental results from two different Bragg grating based interrogation systems, one utilizing a single Gaussian apodized Bragg grating and the other utilizes two spectrally matched Bragg gratings forming a Fabry-Pérot interferometer. Sinusoidal accelerations were applied to both devices and their sensitivities were found to be 0.67±0.035 mV/g and 14.0±0.44 mV/g for the single Bragg grating and Fabry-Pérot interferometer respectively.
Preparation of high quality facets for low-loss coupling is a significant production issue for integrated photonics, usually requiring time consuming lapping and polishing. Recently, the development of precision dicing saws with diamond impregnated blades has allowed the achievement of optical grade surfaces in optical materials based on dicing alone. In this report we investigate the optimization dicing conditions to achieve optical quality surfaces in a silica-on-silicon planar substrate and show what can be achieved by correct selection of machining parameters.
Direct UV Grating Writing (DGW) is an attractive technique for fabricating integrated Bragg grating devices in a silica-on- silicon platform. In this work we propose and demonstrate a novel phase modulated DGW method using an Electro- Optical Modulator for planar Bragg grating fabrication that offers improved performance. This new approach has allowed us to construct Bragg gratings with versatile structures such as phase shifts and apodization profiles. Simple uniform gratings, single and multiple phase shifted gratings, apodized gratings and chirped gratings have been made in this method; using grating detuning and this new phase controlled method we have shown that planar Bragg gratings can be written among 700 nm wavelength range on a single chip exclusively using software control.
Tilted Bragg gratings (TBGs) have been shown to have a number of practical uses in planar geometries, demonstrating polarization capabilities and allowing excitation of surface plasmons. Fabrication and characterization of TBGs has been carried out in silica-on-silicon waveguides to highlight potential planar applications. An initial investigation into the coupling behaviour of TBGs has been undertaken, with greater than -20 dB coupling achieved for even small angle gratings (5 °). Experimental analysis of these TBG systems provides insight into future applications of the planarized devices.
A direct UV written single-mode planar Bragg grating element is demonstrated, with >300 GHz of applied strain tuning. The degree of tuning that the fabricated device has leads to a potential application in dynamic optical networks as an optical add-drop multiplexer. The filter bandwidth is 23±5 GHz and can be tuned over a 308-GHz range by applying transverse strain across the device's composite silica-on-silicon structure.
UV written planar waveguide sensors provide an integrated solution to refractive index sensors. The high sensitivity of the devices originate from their use of Bragg gratings which provide an accurate means of interrogating the local effective index. Conventionally the optical mode is made sensitive to an external refractive index by etching away the cladding and exposing it to an analyte. These devices have been used to sense liquid/solid phase changes and have displayed their potential for use as biological and chemical sensors. Recent results demonstrate sensitivities rivaling that of the highest specification Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) techniques. Here we introduce a new geometry which embraces the benefits of planar technology to realise new integrated devices. The geometry relies upon the use of a vertical trench or groove to produce an interface of optical quality which provides lateral access for an optical mode. The evanescent field interacts with the material within the groove and a Bragg grating in the region provides the means for interrogation. This reorientation of the sensor geometry provides additional flexibility to UV written devices, allowing several different sensors to be defined on the single substrate without multiple etching processes. These multiple sensors may offer complementary information such as the effective index as a function of penetration depth and interrogation wavelength for dispersion analysis. The paper also outlines the inherent feature benefits and fabrication advantages, including a reduction in return loss, spectral artefacts and stress induced birefringence.
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