In this work, we explore the manifestation of optical nonlinearities in silicon, given illumination by radiation with wavelengths in the optical communication (C-band) spectrum, near 1550 nm, and extreme intensities, spanning 100-1000 GW/cm2. We photoexcite a silicon photodiode with femtosecond-duration 1550-nm laser pulses and observe the resulting optical autocorrelations as a function of the peak pulse intensity. Such measurements in silicon reveal (i) negligible single-photon absorption, suggesting that there are few defect (trap) states in the bandgap that can assist below-bandgap photoexcitation, (ii) significant two-photon absorption at intensities above 100 GW/cm2, (iii) growing three-photon absorption at intensities rising above a threshold of 300 GW/cm2, and (iv) increasing saturation at intensities rising above a threshold of 650 GW/cm2. We attribute this saturation to the extremely high density of charge carriers brought about by three-photon absorption—as this depletes the available electrons in the valence band and the available states in the conduction band. We hope that this work will be a foundation for the future integration of telecom (C-band) technologies and silicon nanostructures.
Antibiotic exposure can cause the development of antibiotic resistant bacteria and can induce allergic reactions in humans. A source of high antibiotic exposure is contaminated dairy milk. To prevent contaminated dairy milk, development of antibiotic biosensors for on-site detection is required. This is particularly important for dairy farmers as fines and suspension of license are consequences of shipping contaminated milk to processing plants, where antibiotic tests are currently performed. There are also environmental and economic consequences when whole dairy tanks are contaminated and go to waste. Our work addresses this problem by developing an antibiotic biosensor for farmers to test their milk on-site for ciprofloxacin prior to sending to processing plants. Ciprofloxacin is frequently used to treat common bacterial infections in cattle. Our work provides the following contributions. We introduce an antibiotic biosensor that integrates fluorescence spectroscopy, microfluidic processing, and lock-in amplification to improve the limit-of-detection of ciprofloxacin below the regulatory limit for milk. We also perform traditional fluorescence detection for comparison. Our antibiotic biosensor has a signal-flow starting with an ultraviolet light emitting diode for illumination of ciprofloxacin, and moving through a microfluidic platform, a photodiode for detection of the fluorescent wavelength, and a lock-in amplifier. Our antibiotic biosensor is well-suited for fast on-site analyses and is designed for ease-of-use. Overall, our work shows promise for the integration of real-time on-site antibiotic detection of antibiotics in dairy.
A snapshot hyperspectral imaging architecture is presented which forgoes time-based scanning through use of a sensor diode and liquid crystal arrays for amplitude modulation. Incident light is partitioned into discrete image pixels, frequency encoded, via projection onto spatial and spectral modulation liquid crystal arrays, with resultant sum and difference frequency components manifesting from optical mixing. A hyperspectral image is reconstructed by means of a Fourier analysis which uncovers the associated frequency components according to each pixel modulation frequency. The presented snapshot hyperspectral imaging architecture is investigated in terms of the optical geometry, theoretical and experimental operation, and substantiated via simulation.
Antibiotic residues are regulated in commercially produced milk, with elevated concentrations being harmful. Detection of these antibiotic residues in milk pose a significant challenge for supply chain stakeholders due to the industry standard practice of low-interval off-site laboratory testing. This practice poses risk of non-compliant milk going undetected during on-site milk collection. On-site microfluidic technologies with integrated optical sensors are positioned to mitigate this challenge using increased screening intervals. Droplet-based (digital) microfluidic systems show promise to provide highthroughput screening in dairy applications with integrated fluorescence spectroscopy technologies. However, conventional digital microfluidic systems are subject to biofouling from the protein and fat content within milk. In this work, a biofouling-resistant digital microfluidic platform is introduced. The digital microfluidic platform leverages advancements in parafilm layers, and is demonstrated with actuation of milk and water microdroplets. Electrowetting-based microdroplet actuation is achieved via scalable grid arrays of uniplanar printed surface electrodes in open and closed system configurations. For this array technology, a reconfigurable firmware is developed for user control of automated microdroplet actuation at up to three hundred volts using a graphical computer interface. An exposition of the microdroplet actuation performance is demonstrated and assessed through an optical system for closed-open feedback and positioning of microdroplets. This optical closed-loop allows the actuation velocity of microdroplets to be characterized for polydimethylsiloxane and parafilm dielectric layers, for both water and milk as a function of frequency and voltage. Scalability and automation of the microfluidic platform is discussed, and future integration of fluorescence spectroscopy is investigated.
Kalman filtering (KF) is a widely used filtering technique in highly predictable temporal-mechanical systems where system noise can be modelled with a gaussian function. Improving the signal quality during acquisition is conventionally accomplished by increasing integration time in acquisition. However, this increases the signal acquisition time in photonic systems. In high noise applications, acquisition time is low, and this post-process filtering technique can be applied to increase signal quality. This work explores the comparison of the KF, and nonlinear filtering methods to a simulated blackbody radiation signal where gaussian noise is added to mimic electrical interference. Three filters are selected for comparison on the ability to improve the root mean square error (RMSE) of a simulated measured signal with respect to a simulated actual signal. The filters that are compared in this work are the Extended Kalman Filter (EKF), the Unscented Kalman (UKF), and the Extended Sliding Innovation Filter (ESIF). The filters use a calibration temperature that the filter model uses to determine expected values. To compare the filters, the RMSE is evaluated when error is introduced to the simulation by changing the actual temperature to values equal, below, and above the calibration temperature. Two additional scenarios were considered to test filter robustness. The first scenario uses changes in model temperature occurring as a function of wavelength (i.e., temperature change mid-scan). The second scenario introduces impurities with different emission values. The ESIF demonstrated favorable performance over the other considered filters, showing promise in optical applications.
Traditional photolithography methods of fabrication of micro-opto-electro-mechanical systems (MOEMS) can be substituted with graphene to minimize cost and enhance optofluidic system integration. The use of optical disc drives allows graphite oxide to undergo (near infrared) light exposure, with a specified pattern, and transformation to graphene, also with this specified pattern. This work describes the fabrication methods, electrical conduction and hydrophobicity characteristics for graphene microsystems. The fabrication characterisation involves a comparison of graphene fabrication of microsystems with photolithography fabrication. Graphene fabrication was observed to be comparable to the photolithography fabrication, with a comparable minimum feature size. The electrical characterisation involves resistivity measurements of graphene which decrease from n = 1 (where n represents the dose of light exposure in the disc drive), and saturates at n = 12, representing the final transformation to graphene from graphite oxide. The microfluidic characterisation of the graphene surface involves contact angle measurements and favourable wetting properties are shown. By increasing the fabrication dose, the contact angle rises from 50 degrees until saturation at 116 degrees, allowing for contact angle tunability over this range. Overall, fabrication of MOEMS is found to be successfully achievable using graphene fabrication.
Hyperspectral imaging (HSI) technology has become prominent, with a wide range of applications: food quality control, crop monitoring, and medical diagnostics. As HSI is able to capture spatial and spectral data, it is highly desirable, but highly complex. However, this functionality presents a challenge for data acquisition as three-dimensional HSI images must be acquired by an image sensor of one less dimension. Thus, HSI systems are often pushbroom systems, with twodimensional images being successively constructed over time from line scans. Additionally, HSI is expensive and difficult to operate. A snapshot HSI system is developed to address these challenges, whereby the additional image dimension is encoded onto an occupied dimension on the image sensor. Additionally, the snapshot HSI system is constructed from low cost, readily available components. The presented snapshot HSI system consists of a transparent diffraction optical disc bonded to an aperture mask, with alternating transparent and opaque regions, acting as an optical chopper when rotated by a DC brushless motor. This allows separation of the spectra of overlapped pixels on the HSI image sensor. When an incident beam passes through this optical chopper, many frequencies (corresponding to spatial channels) are imposed by the binary mask, while undergoing diffraction across the visible spectrum. Overlapped spectra are directed at a charge coupled device, where Fourier analyses distinguish each spatial channel. System geometry is used to transform the Fourier amplitude spectra into functions of wavelength for each spatial pixel. The design is experimentally validated through comparison to a commercially available spectrometer.
Microfluidic technologies and on-chip optical components have advanced such that on-chip sensing of minute chemical and molecular compounds is possible, e.g., detection of gases, pathogens, and DNA. Such DNA analyses require purification and amplification to maximize sensitivity. A common method for amplification of a DNA segment is polymerase chain reaction (PCR), which amplifies DNA segments through temperature changes in an assay process. As such, there is great interest in optofluidic lab-on-a-chip PCR methods. However, developments are limited due to challenges in optically driven temperature fluctuations. These challenges arise when the microfluidic samples are smaller than the optical penetration depth of the incident light and only minimal absorption is achieved. To overcome these challenges, this work presents a bio-photonic approach to the PCR method which utilizes infrared (IR) radiation with whispering gallery mode (WGM) waves. The WGM waves greatly increase the interaction length in the microdroplet, allowing smaller (and scalable) dimensions. This improved interaction length occurs because the applied IR radiation is confined along the perimeter of the microdroplet and its surrounding medium. The operation is modelled with finite-different time-domain electromagnetic simulations, comparing current optical heating with the presented technique. These simulations are validated through an experimental analysis with a thermal camera measuring temperature fluctuations. Ultimately, the presented approach is shown to greatly increase scalability in PCR lab-on-a-chip systems.
Advancements in continuous and digital microfluidics (DMF) for integrated optics technologies are improving the feasibility of biophotonic sensors within lab-on-a-chip devices. Lab-on-a-chip diagnostic devices are achieving unprecedented high levels of throughput. Digital microfluidics, with its reconfigurable nature, is often utilized over continuous microfluidic systems due to reagent economy, precision, potential for scalability, and independent fluid actuation. However, scalability within DMF systems is currently inhibited by the DMF sensing architectures that are presently used, being capacitance and resistance sensing. These electrical-based sensing architectures probe each microdroplet location and this is difficult to scale. In this work, a fibre-optic sensing architecture is developed to improve scalability and achieve independent sensing of microdroplets. The sensing architecture utilizes an m × n (column and row) perpendicular overlap grid structure of embedded fibre-optic cables that yields m × n sensing positions with m + n measurement points. To evaluate both localized and practical scalability of the system, actuation contact time and differentiation of multiple microdroplets are assessed. The embedded fibre-optic cables will distribute light proportional to the number of microdroplets in contact along the column or row. Differentiation of multiple microdroplets is assessed with a theoretical model and through experimental measurements. The DMF sensing architecture is demonstrated for a three by three grid with multiple microdroplets present. The results show compatibility with high-speed DMF operation (due to fast contact times) and demonstrate scalable sensing of multiple microdroplets.
When producing milk in the dairy industry, reliable quality assurance systems need to be in place in order to detect allergens which can potentially harm humans upon consumption. Milk can very often be contaminated with hazardous antibiotics used by farmers to treat cows. Current quality assurance biosensors are manual methods and prone to lots of human error. Failure during this process can be financially harmful to dairy companies, and potentially harmful to human health. This shows a necessity for an automated biosensor to detect antibiotics in milk before shipment. This work presents an automated biosensor based on microchip electrophoresis and fluorescence spectroscopy to detect ciprofloxacin in milk, which is a commonly used antibiotic to help treat mastitis of cows. The design and testing results of the low-cost system are presented in this paper. In order to detect the presence of the antibiotic, the milk sample needs to be separated into its constituents. This is achieved by using the phenomenon of electroosmotic flow to allow the mixture to travel down the microchannel, followed by electrophoresis to separate it into its molecules. After this separation occurs, the constituents are illuminated with a UV LED source of 280 nm, as ciprofloxacin will emit fluorescence at 440 nm at this illumination wavelength. This fluorescence is detected using a photodiode, and the output voltage of the photodiode indicates the ciprofloxacin concentration within the milk. This lab-on-a-chip biosensor proved to be reliable and is a good solution to automate antibiotic detection in milk.
There are severe limitations that photoconductive (PC) terahertz (THz) antennas experience due to Joule heating and ohmic losses, which cause premature device breakdown through thermal runaway. In response, this work introduces PC THz antennas utilizing textured InP semiconductors. These textured InP semiconductors exhibit high surface recombination properties and have shortened carrier lifetimes which limit residual photocurrents in the picoseconds following THz pulse emission—ultimately reducing Joule heating and ohmic losses. Fine- and coarse-textured InP semiconductors are studied and compared to a smooth-textured InP semiconductor, which provides a baseline. The surface area ratio (measuring roughness) of the smooth-, fine-, and coarse-textured InP semiconductors is resolved through a computational analysis of SEM images and found as 1.0 ± 0.1, 2.9 ± 0.4, and 4.3 ± 0.6, respectively. The carrier lifetimes of the smooth-, fine-, and coarse-textured InP semiconductors are found as respective values of 200 ± 6, 100 ± 10, and 20 ± 3 ps when measured with a pump-probe experimental system. The emitted THz electric fields and corresponding consumption of photocurrent are measured with a THz experimental setup. The temporal and spectral responses of PC THz antennas made with each of the textured InP semiconductors are found to be similar; however, the consumption of photocurrent (relating to Joule heating and ohmic losses) is greatly diminished for the semiconductors that are textured. The findings of this work can assist in engineering of small-scale PC THz antennas for high-power operation, where they are extremely vulnerable to premature device breakdown through thermal runaway.
Optical wireless communications (OWC) offers the potential for high-speed and mobile operation in indoor networks. Such OWC systems often employ a fixed transmitter grid and mobile transceivers, with the mobile transceivers carrying out bi-directional communication via active downlinks (ideally with high-speed signal detection) and passive uplinks (ideally with broad angular retroreflection and high-speed modulation). It can be challenging to integrate all of these bidirectional communication capabilities within the mobile transceivers, however, as there is a simultaneous desire for compact packaging. With this in mind, the work presented here introduces a new form of transceiver for bi-directional OWC systems. The transceiver incorporates radial photoconductive switches (for high-speed signal detection) and a spherical retro-modulator (for broad angular retroreflection and high-speed all-optical modulation). All-optical retromodulation are investigated by way of theoretical models and experimental testing, for spherical retro-modulators comprised of three glasses, N-BK7, N-LASF9, and S-LAH79, having differing levels of refraction and nonlinearity. It is found that the spherical retro-modulator comprised of S-LAH79, with a refractive index of n ≈ 2 and a Kerr nonlinear index of n2 ≈ (1.8 ± 0.1) × 10-15 cm2/W, yields both broad angular retroreflection (over a solid angle of 2π steradians) and ultrafast modulation (over a duration of 120 fs). Such transceivers can become important elements for all-optical implementations in future bi-directional OWC systems.
The development and ultimate operation of a nanocomposite high-aspect-ratio photoinjection (HARP) device is presented in this work. The device makes use of a nanocomposite material as the optically active layer and the device achieves a large optical penetration depth with a high aspect ratio which provides a strong actuation force far away from the point of photoinjection. The nanocomposite material can be continuously illuminated and the position of the microdroplets can, therefore, be controlled to diffraction limited resolution. The nanocomposite HARP device shows great potential for future on-chip applications.
KEYWORDS: Dielectrophoresis, Microfluidics, Dielectrics, Electromagnetism, Control systems, Electrodes, Scanning electron microscopy, Lab on a chip, Biomedical optics, Copper
Digital (droplet-based) microfluidic systems apply electromagnetic characteristics as the fundamental fluid actuation mechanism. These systems are often implemented in two-dimensional architectures, overcoming one-dimensional continuous flow channel practical issues. The fundamental operation for digital microfluidics requires the creation of an electric field distribution to achieve desired fluid actuation. The electric field distribution is typically non-uniform, enabling creation of net dielectrophoresis (DEP) force. The DEP force magnitude is proportional to the difference between microdroplet and surrounding medium complex dielectric constants, and the gradient of the electric field magnitude squared. Force sign/direction can be manipulated to achieve a force towards higher (positive DEP) or lower (negative DEP) electrostatic energy by tailoring the relative difference between microdroplet and surrounding medium complex dielectric constants through careful selection of the devices fabrication materials. The DEP force magnitudes and directions are applied here for well-controlled and high-speed microdroplet actuation. Control and speed characteristics arise from significant differences in the microdroplet/medium conductivity and the use of a micropin architecture with strong electric field gradients. The implementation, referred to here as a DEP microjet, establishes especially strong axial propulsion forces. Single- and double-micropin topologies achieve strong axial propulsion force, but only the double-micropin topology creates transverse converging forces for stable and controlled microdroplet actuation. Electric field distributions for each topology are investigated and linked to axial and transverse forces. Experimental results are presented for both topologies. The double-micropin topology is tested with biological fluids. Microdroplet actuation speeds up to 25 cm/s are achieved—comparable to the fastest speeds to-date.
Microfluidics technologies have received great attention and appear in many bioanalyses applications. A recent microfluidics subset has appeared as droplet-based digital microfluidics (DMF). Here, microdroplets are manipulated in a two-dimensional on-chip plane using electric fields, contrasting the one-dimensional pressure-based channel flow of continuous flow microfluidics. These DMF systems fundamentally offer reconfigurability, whereby one device performs many bioanalysis tasks. A subset of DMF systems called optoelectrowetting is also of recent interest due to its ability for intricate microdroplet routing processes in the on-chip plane. For an optoelectrowetting chip, the DMF structure is modified with optically triggered electrodes with arrayed photoconductive switches. The arrayed photoconductive switches are optically-activated so microdroplets in the vicinity are routed to the illuminated switch. Unfortunately, such systems still require intricate electrode arrays, limiting microdroplet actuation resolution by the electrode size. This work proposes an on-chip optofluidic device with a continuous and planar semiconductor layer as the photoconductive mechanism. An illuminated section of the semiconductor layer acts as a localized electrode, with the photogenerated charge-carriers attracting nearby microdroplets. Given this planar topology, the illuminating beam is used to move the microdroplets continuously over the on-chip plane with precise optical control. The resolution for such a process is ultimately limited by charge-carrier diffusion, so an alternative material, a nanocomposite, is introduced to the on-chip device design. The nanocomposite consists of 20 nm semiconductor nanoparticles embedded in an insulative polymer host. This gives restricted diffusion length, being on the nanometer-scale of the nanoparticle diameter. Experimental device operation is demonstrated.
Biosensing is important for detection and characterization of microorganisms. When the detection and characterization of targeted microorganisms require micron-scale resolutions, optical biosensing techniques are especially beneficial. Optical biosensing can be applied through direct or indirect optical sensing techniques. The latter have demonstrated especially high sensitivities for the detection of targeted microorganisms with labeling. Unfortunately, such systems rely on high-resolution microscopy with microscopic sampling areas to image the labeled target microorganisms. This leads to long characterization times for applications such as pathogen detection in water quality monitoring where users must scan the micron-scale sampling areas across millimeter- or even centimeter-scale samples. This work introduces retroreflector labels for the detection and characterization of microorganisms for macroscopic sample sizes. The demonstrated retroreflective imaging system uses a laser source to illuminate the sample, in lieu of the fluorescent excitation source, and micron-scale retroreflector labels, in lieu of fluorescent stains/proteins. Antibodies are used to bind retroreflectors to targeted microorganisms. The presence of these microscopic retroreflector-microorganism pairs is monitored in a retroreflected image that is captured by a distant image sensor which shows a well-localized retroreflected beamspot for each pair. Characteristics of an appropriately-designed retroreflective imaging system which provide a quantifiable record of microorganism-coupled retroreflectors across macroscopic sample sizes are presented. Retroreflection directionality, collimation, and contrast are investigated for both corner-cube retroreflectors and spherical retroreflectors (of varying refractive indices). It is ultimately found that such a system is an effective tool for the detection and characterization of microorganism targets, down to a single-target detection limit.
This work analyzes ultrafast carrier dynamics in GaP under intense photoexcitation. The dynamics are initially dominated by hot electron scattering from the central Γ valley to the X7 sidevalley over 700 fs and X6 sidevalley over 4 ps. Subsequent pump-fluence-dependent relaxation is observed over 30 to 52 ps for as pump fluence increases. This prolonged energy relaxation is ascribed to impeded phonon decay. Experimental and theoretical results are shown to provide evidence for a hot phonon bottleneck at the high fluences. The implications of these ultrafast carrier dynamics are discussed for emerging GaP applications.
An integrated photoconductive (PC) sensor is introduced as an optoelectronic element for visible light optical wireless communications (OWC) links. The sensor applies the standard PC switch, being a biased metal-semiconductor-metal gap, in a three-fold-symmetric corner-cube architecture with a summed output photocurrent at the vertex. Such a form facilitates bidirectional retroreflective communications to meet fundamental OWC requirements for broad directional and broad spectral capabilities. The ultimate OWC capability, for ultrafast optoelectronic switching times, is studied here for material response and transit time response, and it is shown that ultrafast (picosecond) optoelectronic switching times can be achieved and the general device design consideration is discussed for emerging visible light OWC systems.
GaP is investigated for photoconductive terahertz (THz) generation. It is shown that the atypical bandstructure of GaP,
with a central high-mobility valley and low-mobility sidevalleys, can be exploited to form a transient high-mobility state.
The subsequent scattering and relaxation of hot electrons into and within the lower-mobility sidevalleys leaves the
material in a relaxed low-conduction state. The experimental and theoretical study shows that ultrafast transient mobility,
occurring over 800 fs, can create broadband THz pulses with reduced recovery times (and low leakage currents). The
impacts of these findings are discussed for efficient and portable next-generation THz systems.
The capabilities for practical all-optical switch (AOS) operation, being picosecond switching times and femtojoule
switching energies, are investigated in this work. Two distinct nanophotonic architectures are introduced. The first
nanophotonic architecture uses nanostructures, in the form of semiconductor nanoparticles, to enhance the rate of surface
recombination and provide picosecond switching times. Switching times down to 4.5 ps are demonstrated. The second
architecture uses photonic nanoinjection, with high refractive index spheres, to create high-intensity pump-probe beam
interaction at a GaAs surface. This architecture offers 10 ps switching times with switching energies as low as 50 fJ.
Nanophotonic architectures such as these can provide the capabilities needed for future AOS implementations.
An on-chip system is presented with integrated architectures for digital microfluidic actuation and sensing. Localized actuation is brought about by a digital microfluidic multiplexer layout that overcomes the challenges of multi-microdrop interference, and complete two-dimensional motion is shown for microdrops on a 14×14 grid with minimized complexity by way of 14+14 inputs. At the same time, microdrop sensing is demonstrated in a folded-cavity design for enhanced optical intensity probing of internal fluid refractive indices. The heightened intensities from this on-chip refractometer are shown to have a linear response to the underlying fluid refractive index. An electro-dispensing technique is used to fabricate the folded-cavity optical architecture in a format that is tuned for the desired refractive index range and sensitivity. The overall lab-on-a-chip system is successful in integrating localized microdrop actuation and sensing.
A new technique, ultrafast refractometry, is introduced for probing the refractive, absorptive, and diffractive conditions
in nanocomposite assemblies. It is shown that the physical characteristics of nanocomposites-nanoparticle sizes and
volumetric ratios in the polymer host-are decisive factors in determining the material's overall optical properties.
Ultrashort optical pulses (100 fs) act as an in-situ probe for temporal phase, optical attenuation, and spatial coherence in
these discrete materials. This technique is demonstrated for numerous samples of 20 nm SiC nanoparticle/polymer
nanocomposites. A close link between the physical properties and the ultimate refraction, absorption, and diffraction
characteristics of these nanocomposite optical materials is shown.
A digital microfluidic architecture is introduced for micron-scale localized fluid actuation and in in-situ optical sensing.
Contemporary device integration challenges related to localization and device scalability are overcome through the
introduction of a bi-layered digital microfluidic multiplexer. Trinary inputs are applied through differential combinations
of voltage signals between upper (column) electrodes and lower (row) electrodes. The ultimate layout provides increased
scalability for massively parallel microfluidic actuation applications with a minimal number of inputs. The on-chip
sensing technique employed here incorporates a microlens in a folded-cavity arrangement (fabricated by a new voltage-tuned
polymer electro-dispensing technique). Such a geometry heightens the sensitivity between the optical probe and
fluid refractive properties and allows the device to probe the refractive index of the internal fluid. This optical
refractometry sensing technique is merged with the actuation capabilities of the digital microfluidic multiplexer on a
single lab-on-a-chip device.
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