The challenge of depth-resolved, nonionizing (hybrid-optical) detection of mineral loss in bones is addressed using truncated-correlation photothermal coherence tomography (TC-PCT). This approach has importance not only in ground-based clinical procedures, but also in microgravity space applications. Analogous to x-ray morphometric parameters, two- and three-dimensional markers have been defined and estimated for chemically demineralized goat rib bones. Cortical and trabecular regions have been analyzed independently and together using the computational slicing advantage of TC-PCT, and the results have been verified using micro-CT imaging (the gold standard). For low-demineralization levels, both modalities follow the same trend. However, for very high mineral loss that is unlikely to occur naturally, anomalies exist in both methods. Demineralization tracking has been carried out to a depth of ∼3 mm below the irradiated surface. Compared with micro-CT imaging, TC-PCT offers an improved dynamic range, which is a beneficial feature while analyzing highly demineralized bones. Also, TC-PCT parameters are found to be more sensitive to trabecular and combined cortical-trabecular demineralization compared with x-ray parameters. Axial and lateral resolutions in bone imaging for the current instrumental configuration are ∼25 and 100 μm, respectively.
The main objective of the study was to investigate the ability of frequency-domain photothermal radiometry (PTR) and modulated luminescence (LUM) to detect secondary caries lesions on the walls of restorations (wall lesions). Changes in experimental PTR-LUM signals due to sequential demineralization on entire vertical walls of sectioned tooth samples were investigated. In addition, transverse micro-radiography (TMR) analysis (used as a gold standard) was conducted to measure the degree of demineralization that occurred in each sample. Statistical correlation between TMR results and PTR-LUM signals was determined using Pearson's correlation coefficient. LUM signals were found to be dominated by the scattered component of the incident laser beam. The more clinically relevant cases of localized demineralization and remineralization on vertical walls were also investigated to examine whether PTR-LUM signals are sensitive to demineralization and remineralization of much smaller areas. The overall results demonstrated that PTR-LUM is sensitive to progressive demineralization and remineralization on vertical walls of sectioned tooth samples.
Dental caries is the leading cause of tooth loss, which can promptly be prevented if detected in early stages of progression. Unfortunately, conventional diagnostic modalities currently used in dentistry lack the sensitivity to detect early caries. The authors' intention is to compare the ability of polarized Raman spectroscopy and thermophotonic imaging to make early caries diagnosis. Extracted human teeth with no visible stain or defects were artificially demineralized in accordance to a well-known protocol in dentistry for simulated early caries development at several demineralization stages. Samples were then inspected using polarized Raman spectroscopy and thermophotonic imaging. The sensitivities of these two diagnostic modalities are compared, and the results are verified using transverse micro-radiography. It was found that compared to polarized Raman spectroscopy, thermophotonic imaging exhibits superior sensitivity to very early stages of demineralization.
As an extension of frequency-domain photothermal radiometry, a novel dental-imaging modality, thermophotonic lock-in imaging (TPLI), is introduced. This methodology uses photothermal wave principles and is capable of detecting early carious lesions and cracks on occlusal and approximal surfaces as well as early caries induced by artificial demineralizing solutions. The increased light scattering and absorption within early carious lesions increases the thermal-wave amplitude and shifts the thermal-wave centroid, producing contrast between the carious lesion and the intact enamel in both amplitude and phase images. Samples with artificial and natural occlusal and approximal caries were examined in this study. Thermophotonic effective detection depth is controlled by the modulation frequency according to the well-known concept of thermal diffusion length. TPLI phase images are emissivity normalized and therefore insensitive to the presence of stains. Amplitude images, on the other hand, provide integrated information from deeper enamel regions. It is concluded that the results of our noninvasive, noncontacting imaging methodology exhibit higher sensitivity to very early demineralization than dental radiographs and are in agreement with the destructive transverse microradiography mineral density profiles.
Photothermal radiometry and modulated luminescence (PTR-LUM) is an emerging nondestructive methodology applied toward the characterization and quantification of dental caries. We evaluate the efficacy of PTR-LUM in vitro to detect, monitor, and quantify human enamel caries. Artificial caries are created in extracted human molars (n = 15) using an acidified gel system (pH 4.5) for 10 or 40 days. PTR-LUM frequency scans (1 Hz-1 kHz) are performed before and during demineralization. Transverse microradiography (TMR) analysis, the current gold standard, follows at treatment conclusion to determine the mineral loss and depth of the artificially demineralized lesions. A theoretical model is applied to PTR experimental data to evaluate the changes in optothermophysical properties of demineralized enamel as a function of time. Higher optical scattering coefficients and poorer thermophysical properties are characteristic of the growing demineralized lesions, as verified by TMR, where the generated microporosities of the subsurface lesion confine the thermal-wave centroid. Enhanced optical scattering coefficients of demineralized lesions result in poorer luminescence yield due to scattering of both incident and converted luminescent photons. PTR-LUM sensitivity to changes in tooth mineralization coupled with opto-thermophysical property extraction illustrates the technique's potential for nondestructive quantification of enamel caries.
Photothermal radiometry and modulated luminescence (PTR-LUM) is a non-destructive methodology applied toward the
detection, monitoring and quantification of dental caries. The purpose of this study was to evaluate the efficacy of PTRLUM
to detect incipient caries lesions and quantify opto-thermophysical properties as a function of treatment time.
Extracted human molars (n=15) were exposed to an acid demineralization gel (pH 4.5) for 10 or 40 days in order to
simulate incipient caries lesions. PTR-LUM frequency scans (1 Hz - 1 kHz) were performed prior to and during
demineralization. Transverse Micro-Radiography (TMR) analysis followed at treatment conclusion. A coupled diffusephoton-
density-wave and thermal-wave theoretical model was applied to PTR experimental amplitude and phase data
across the frequency range of 4 Hz - 354 Hz, to quantitatively evaluate changes in thermal and optical properties of
sound and demineralized enamel. Excellent fits with small residuals were observed experimental and theoretical data
illustrating the robustness of the computational algorithm. Increased scattering coefficients and poorer thermophysical
properties were characteristic of demineralized lesion bodies. Enhanced optical scattering coefficients of demineralized
lesions resulted in poorer luminescence yield due to scattering of both incident and converted luminescent photons.
Differences in the rate of lesion progression for the 10-day and 40-day samples points to a continuum of surface and
diffusion controlled mechanism of lesion formation. PTR-LUM sensitivity to changes in tooth mineralization coupled
with opto-thermophysical property extraction illustrates the technique's potential for non-destructive quantification of
enamel caries.
Using photothermal wave principles and as an extension to the frequency-domain photothermal radiometry, a novel
dental imaging modality, thermophotonic lock-in imaging (TPLI), is introduced. In order to assess the capabilities of the
proposed methodology samples with natural and artificially-generated caries were examined and the results were
compared with the destructive transverse microradiography density profiles. It was found that the increased light
scattering and absorption within early carious lesions increases the thermal-wave amplitude and shifts the thermal-wave
centroid, producing contrast between the carious lesion and the intact enamel in both amplitude and phase images. Phase
images are emissivity normalized and therefore insensitive to the presence of stain. Amplitude images provide integrated
information from deeper enamel regions. It was concluded that the results of our non-invasive, non-contacting imaging
methodology exhibit significantly higher sensitivity to very early demineralization than dental radiographs and are in
agreement with the destructive transverse microradiography mineral density profiles.
The development of photothermal techniques to detect thermal waves in biological tissue has occurred with a
concomitant advancement in the extraction of material thermophysical properties and knowledge regarding the internal
structure of a medium. Human molars (n=37) were subjected to demineralization in acid gel (pH 4.5, 10 days), followed
by incubation in different fluoride-containing remineralization solutions. PTR-LUM frequency scans (1 Hz - 1 kHz)
were performed prior to and during demineralization and remineralization treatments. Transverse Micro-Radiography
(TMR) analysis followed at treatment conclusion. A coupled diffuse-photon-density-wave and thermal-wave theoretical
model was used to quantitatively evaluate changes in thermal and optical properties of sound, demineralized and
remineralized enamel. Amplitude increase and phase lag decrease in demineralized samples were consistent with higher
scatter of the diffuse-photon density field and thermal wave confinement to near-surface regions. A remineralized
sample illustrates a complex interplay between surface and subsurface processes, confining the thermal-wave centroid
toward the dominating layer. PTR-LUM sensitivity to changes in tooth mineralization coupled with optical and thermal
property extraction illustrates the technique's potential for non-destructive evaluation of multi-layered turbid media.
It is well established that the development of new technologies for early detection and quantitative monitoring of dental
caries at its early stage could provide health and economic benefits ranging from timely preventive interventions to
reduction of the time required for clinical trials of anti-caries agents. However, the new technologies currently used in
clinical setting cannot assess and monitor caries using the actual mineral concentration within the lesion, while a
laboratory-based microcomputed tomography (MCT) has been shown to possess this capability. Thus we envision the
establishment of mathematical equations relating the measurements of each of the clinical technologies to that of MCT
will enable the mineral concentration of lesions detected and assessed in clinical practice to be extrapolated from the
equation, and this will facilitate preventitive care in dentistry to lower treatment cost. We utilize MCT and the two
prominent clinical caries assessment devices (Quantitative Light-induced Fluorescence [QLF] and Diagnodent) to
longitudinally monitor the development of caries in a continuous flow mixed-organisms biofilm model (artificial mouth),
and then used the collected data to establish mathematical equation relating the measurements of each of the clinical
technologies to that of MCT. A linear correlation was observed between the measurements of MicroCT and that of QLF
and Diagnodent. Thus mineral density in a carious lesion detected and measured using QLF or Diagnodent can be
extrapolated using the developed equation. This highlights the usefulness of MCT for monitoring the progress of an
early caries being treated with therapeutic agents in clinical practice or trials.
A coupled diffuse-photon-density-wave and thermal-wave theoretical model was developed to describe the
biothermophotonic phenomena in multi-layered hard tissue structures. Photothermal Radiometry was applied as a safe,
non-destructive, and highly sensitive tool for the detection of early tooth enamel demineralization to test the theory.
Extracted human tooth was treated sequentially with an artificial demineralization gel to simulate controlled mineral loss
in the enamel. The experimental setup included a semiconductor laser (659 nm, 120 mW) as the source of the
photothermal signal. Modulated laser light generated infrared blackbody radiation from teeth upon absorption and nonradiative
energy conversion. The infrared flux emitted by the treated region of the tooth surface and sub-surface was
monitored with an infrared detector, both before and after treatment. Frequency scans with a laser beam size of 3 mm
were performed in order to guarantee one-dimensionality of the photothermal field. TMR images showed clear
differences between sound and demineralized enamel, however this technique is destructive. Dental radiographs did not
indicate any changes. The photothermal signal showed clear change even after 1 min of gel treatment. As a result of the
fittings, thermal and optical properties of sound and demineralized enamel were obtained, which allowed for quantitative
differentiation of healthy and non-healthy regions. In conclusion, the developed model was shown to be a promising tool
for non-invasive quantitative analysis of early demineralization of hard tissues.
Artificially created demineralized and remineralized carious lesions on the root and enamel of human teeth were examined by photothermal radiometry (PTR) and modulated luminescence (LUM). Fourteen extracted human teeth were used and a lesion was created on a 1 mm×4 mm rectangular window, spanning root to enamel, using a lactic acid-based acidified gel to demineralize the tooth surface. The lesion was then exposed to a remineralization solution. Each sample was examined with PTR/LUM on the root and enamel before and after treatment at times from 1 to 10 (5 on root) days of demineralization and 2 to 10 days of remineralization. Ten-day (5 on root) demineralized samples were remineralized. After completing all the experiments, transverse microradiography (TMR) analysis was performed to compare and correlate the PTR/LUM signals to the depth of lesions and mineral losses. The PTR and LUM amplitudes and phases showed gradual and consistent changes with treatment time. In this study, TMR showed good correlation coefficients with PTR and LUM. It was also found that the length of the treatment time did not correlate very well to any technique, PTR/LUM or TMR, which implies a significant degree of inhomogeneity of the demireralization and remineralization rates in each and every tooth.
Photothermal radiometry (PTR) and modulated luminescence (LUM) were applied to detect and monitor the
demineralization of root and enamel surfaces of human teeth to produce caries lesions and the subsequent
remineralization of the produced lesions. The experimental set-up consisted of a semiconductor laser (659 nm, 120 mW),
a mercury-cadmium-telluride IR detector for PTR, a photodiode for LUM, and two lock-in amplifiers. A lesion was
created on a 1-mm × 4-mm rectangular window, spanning root to enamel surface, using an artificial caries lesion gel to
demineralize the tooth surface and create small carious lesions. The samples were subsequently immersed in a
remineralization solution. Each sample was examined with PTR/LUM on root and enamel before and after treatment at
times from 1 to 10 days of demineralization and 2 to 10 days of remineralization. PTR/LUM signals showed gradual and
consistent changes with treatment time. At the completion of the experiments, transverse micro-radiography (TMR)
analysis was performed to correlate the PTR/LUM signals to depth of the carious lesions and mineral losses. In this
study, TMR showed good correlation with PTR/LUM. It was also found that treatment duration did not correlate well to
any technique, PTR/LUM, or TMR, which is indicative of significant variations in demineralization - remineralization
rates among different teeth.
Laser induced photothermal radiometry (PTR) was applied as a safe, non-destructive, and highly sensitive tool for the
detection of early tooth surface demineralization. In the experiments, teeth were treated sequentially with an artificial
demineralization gel to simulate controlled mineral loss on the enamel surface. Modulated laser light generated infrared
blackbody radiation from teeth upon absorption and nonradiative energy conversion. The infrared flux emitted by the
treated region of the tooth surface and sub-surface was monitored with an infrared detector twice: before and after
treatment. The experiments showed very high sensitivity of the measured signal to incipient changes in the enamel
structure, emphasizing the clinical capabilities of the method. In order to analyze the biothermophotonic phenomena in a
sample during the photothermal excitation, a theoretical model featuring coupled diffuse-photon-density-wave and
thermal-wave fields was developed. The theoretical fits based on the three-layer approach (demineralizad enamel +
healthy enamel + dentin) allowed fitting thermal and optical properties of the demineralized layer. The theoretical
analysis showed that the dentin layer should be taken into account in the fittings.
Results are presented in using low coherence interferometry in quantifying the reflectivity and imaging of different
objects, such as tissue, paintings and fruits. All images have been obtained using en-face flying spot technology. This
allows simultaneous generation of optical coherence tomography and confocal scanning images.
Frequency-domain photothermal radiometry (FD-PTR or PTR) is used to detect mechanical holes and demineralized enamel in the interproximal contact area of extracted human teeth. Thirty-four teeth are used in a series of experiments. Preliminary tests to detect mechanical holes created by dental burs and 37% phosphoric acid etching for 20 s on the interproximal contact points show distinct differences in the signal. Interproximal contact areas are demineralized by using a partially saturated acidic buffer system. Each sample pair is examined with PTR before and after micromachining or treating at sequential treatment periods spanning 6 h to 30 days. Dental bitewing radiographs showed no sign of demineralized lesion even for samples treated for 30 days. Microcomputer tomography (µ-CT), transverse microradiography (TMR), and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) analyses are performed. Although µ-CT and TMR measured mineral losses and lesion depths, only SEM surface images showed visible signs of treatment because of the minimal extent of the demineralization. However, the PTR amplitude increased by more than 300% after 80 h of treatment. Therefore, PTR is shown to have sufficient contrast for the detection of very early interproximal demineralized lesions. The technique further exhibits excellent signal reproducibility and consistent signal changes in the presence of interproximal demineralized lesions, attributes that could lead to PTR as a reliable probe to detect early interproximal demineralization lesions. Modulated luminescence is also measured simultaneously, but it shows a lower ability than PTR to detect these interproximal demineralized lesions.
A review is presented of the developments in Kent in the field of optical coherence tomography (OCT) based instrumentation. Original versatile imaging systems have been devised which allow operation in different regimes under software control. Using such systems, B-scan and C-scan images are demonstrated from retina, anterior chamber, skin and teeth. The systems developed in Kent employ the flying spot concept, i.e. they use en-face scanning of the beam across the target. This has opened the possibility of providing simultaneous en-face OCT and confocal images (C-scans). Application of a standalone OCT/confocal system for investigating the retina in eyes with pathology, the anterior chamber, skin and teeth is demonstrated.
En-face optical coherence tomography (OCT) technology is employed to produce high resolution images from the retina, cornea, skin and teeth. Longitudinal (B-scan) and transversal (C-scan) images are demonstrated using en-face scanning method. The main advantage of the en-face imaging is that the C-scan images permit a straightforward comparison with the images produced by confocal microscopy. Other developments are also presented as the generation of 3D imaging of different tissue using stacks of en- face OCT images collected at different depths.
The utility of a versatile multifunctional standalone Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT)/confocal system for imaging dental tissue was investigated. The system can collect A-scan (reflectivity versus depth graph), longitudinal (B-scan) and en-face (C-scan) OCT images, simultaneously with a confocal image. The power to the sample was 250(mu) W, wavelength (lambda) =850 nm and the depth resolution in air was 16 micrometers . The OCT images showed caries lesions as volumes of reduced reflectivity. Transversal images (C-scan) showed the en-face slices of the tooth tissue like in confocal microscopy. Longitudinal images showed the depth of the lesion into the tooth tissue as well as the different structural layers of sound tooth in the same way as seen in ultrasound images. A-scans performed in locations selected in the en-face images provided quantitative data about the reflectivity versus depth. The confocal channel was extremely useful for guidance and it has also shown the integral of the intensity over depth at transversal locations. We concluded that OCT proved capable to detect an early caries lesion, to show the depth of the lesion into the tissue, and quantitatively assess the degree of demineralization.
Fluorescence radiance loss in enamel following demineralization has been correlated to the amount of mineral lost during the demineralization. The correlation between fluorescence loss measured by Quantitative Light- induced Fluorescence (QLF) and the reflectivity loss measured by an en-face Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) system was investigated in a demineralization process to produce artificial caries. We used an OCT system which can collect A-scans (reflectivity versus depth graph), B-scans (longitudinal images) and C-scans (en-face images). The power to the sample was 250 (mu) W, wavelength (lambda) =850 nm and the depth resolution in air 16micrometers . Transversal and longitudinal images showed the caries lesion as volumes of reduced reflectivity. A-scans, which show the profile of the reflectivity versus depth of penetration into the tooth tissue, were used for quantitative analysis of the reflectivity loss. Both the fluorescence radiance and reflectivity of the enamel decreased with increasing demineralization time. A linear correlation was observed between the percentage fluorescence loss measured by QLF and the percentage reflectivity loss measured by OCT. It was concluded that the decrease in reflectivity of the enamel during demineralization, measured by OCT, could be related to the amount of mineral lost during the demineralization process.
The ability of an en-face Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) system to detect and quantitatively monitor the demineralization of teeth to produce enamel and dentine (root) caries was determined and validated with an established method of quantifying demineralization, transverse microradiography (TMR). We used an OCT system which can collect A-scans, B-scans (longitudinal images) and C-scans (en-face images). The development of enamel and root caries, by 3-day demineralization in acidic buffer solution, was assessed quantitatively every 24 hours. Caries lesions were shown as volumes of reduced reflectivity in both the transversal and longitudinal images. The A-scan, which showed the levels of reflectivity versus the depth of penetration into the tissue, was used for the quantitative analysis of the lesions. Results demonstrated that the reflectivity of tooth tissue decreased with increasing demineralization time. A linear correlation was observed between the mineral loss in enamel (r=1.0) and dentine (r=0.957) measured by TMR and the percentage reflectivity loss measured by OCT. We concluded that OCT could detect incipient enamel and root caries and quantitatively monitor the demineralization of the tissue. The reflectivity loss in tooth tissue during demineralization, measured by OCT, could be related to the amount of mineral lost during the demineralization.
Optical Coherence Tomography (OCT) has been used to produce longitudinal images of dental tissues. We investigated the influence on OCT system, of factors that could limit detection and quantitative monitoring of incipient caries. The effect of such factors as saliva, dental plaque, lesion staining, ambient lighting, and Dacron gauze (used to encourage plaque growth in in situ caries studies) on OCT imaging and analysis were determined during demineralization to produce early caries. The system can collect A-scans, B- scans (longitudinal images) and C-scans (en-face images). Caries lesions were shown as volumes of reduced reflectivity. A-scan, which showed the levels of reflectivity versus the depth of penetration into the tooth tissue, was used for the quantitative analysis of the reflectivity loss. The reflectivity of the tooth tissue decreased with demineralization. The percentage change in reflectivity of the tissue was quantified as a measure of the change in mineral status of the tissue following demineralization. Neither the presence of saliva, plaque, Dacron gauze, plaque/Dacron gauze, nor lesion staining nor the level of ambient lighting significantly affected OCT detection and analysis of an incipient caries.
Current dental diagnostic methods can detect caries but cannot quantify the mineral status of the lesion. Quantitative Light-induced Fluorescence (QLF) measures the percentage fluorescence radiance change of demineralised enamel with respect to surround sound enamel, and related it directly to the amount of mineral lost during demineralisation. Demineralisation of teeth to produce caries-like lesions and the subsequent remineralisation of the lesions were monitored quantitatively and longitudinally with QLF. The influence of factors such as presence of plaque or saliva, lesion staining, lesion magnification, tooth thickness and developmental hypomineralisation, on the reproducibility of QLF imaging and analysis were investigated, Results showed that the integrated fluorescence change (hence the mineral loss) increased linearly with demineralisation time and decreased with increasing remineralisation time. Caries detection was limited by saliva or plaque, but enhanced by staining. QLF could not discriminate between developmental hypomineralisation and caries. Neither the variation in tooth thickness nor lesion magnification within the limit of a sharp image made a significant difference in QLF analysis. It was concluded that QLF could detect and quantitatively monitor the mineral changes in an incipient caries on a longitudinal basis, however detection may be limited by the presence of saliva or plaque or enhanced by staining.
The changing of tooth shade by whitening agents occurs gradually. Apart from being subjective and affected by the conditions of the surroundings, visual observation cannot detect a very slight change in tooth color. An electronic method, which can communicate the color change quantitatively, would be more reliable. Quantitative Light- induced Fluorescence (QLF) was developed to detect and assess dental caries based on the phenomenon of change of autofluorescence of a tooth by demineralization. However, stains on the tooth surface exhibit the same phenomenon, and therefore QLF can be used to measure the percentage fluorescence change of stained enamel with respect to surrounding unstained enamel. The present study described a technique of assessing the effect of a tooth-whitening agent using QLF. This was demonstrated in two experiments in which either wholly or partially stained teeth were whitened by intermittent immersion in sodium hypochlorite. Following each immersion, the integrated fluorescence change due to the stain was quantified using QLF. In either situation, the value of (Delta) Q decreased linearly as the tooth regained its natural shade. It was concluded that gradual changing of the shade of discolored teeth by a whitening agent could be quantified using QLF.
Access to the requested content is limited to institutions that have purchased or subscribe to SPIE eBooks.
You are receiving this notice because your organization may not have SPIE eBooks access.*
*Shibboleth/Open Athens users─please
sign in
to access your institution's subscriptions.
To obtain this item, you may purchase the complete book in print or electronic format on
SPIE.org.
INSTITUTIONAL Select your institution to access the SPIE Digital Library.
PERSONAL Sign in with your SPIE account to access your personal subscriptions or to use specific features such as save to my library, sign up for alerts, save searches, etc.