Water, in its various phases, in any environment other than desert (hot or cold) conditions, is the single most destructive element that causes deterioration of materials and failure of building assemblies. It is the key element present in the formation of mold and fungi that lead to indoor air quality problems. Water is the primary element that needs to be managed in buildings to ensure human comfort, health and safety. Under the right thermodynamic conditions the detection of moisture in its various states is possible through the use of infrared thermography for a large variety of building assemblies and materials. The difficulty is that moisture is transient and mobile from one environment to another via air movement, vapor pressure or phase change. Building materials and enclosures provide both repositories and barriers to this moisture movement. In real life steady state conditions do not exist for moisture within building materials and enclosures. Thus the detection of moisture is in a constant state of transition. Sometimes you will see it and sometimes you will not. Understanding the limitations at the time of inspection will go a long way to mitigating unsatisfied clients or difficult litigation.
Moisture detection can be observed by IRT via three physical mechanisms; latent heat absorption or release during phase change; a change in conductive heat transfer; and a change in thermal capacitance. Complicating the three methodologies is the factor of variable temperature differentials and variable mass air flow on, through and around surfaces being inspected. Building enclosures come in variable assembly types and are designed to perform differently in different environmental regions. Sources for moisture accumulation will vary for different environmental conditions. Detection methodologies will change for each assembly type in different ambient environments.
This paper will look at the issue of the methodologies for detection of the presence of moisture and determination of the various sources from which it accumulates in building assemblies. The end objective for IRT based moisture detection inspections is not to just identify that moisture is present but to determine its extent and source. Accurate assessment of the source(s) and root cause of the moisture is critical to the development of a permanent solution to the problem.
The Canadian National Master Construction Specification (NMS) is the most comprehensive master specification
available commercially in North America; each section serves as an easy-to-use framework for writing construction
project specifications. The NMS Secretariat contracted, through consultations with the building industry and
departmental experts in Public Works and Government Services Canada, the development of four new specification
sections for commonly implemented infrared thermographic services associated with building construction and
maintenance. These include inspection services for building envelopes, roofs, mechanical equipment, and electrical
systems. This paper will introduce the four types of inspection services found in these sections and discuss the relevant
information that each service provides. Additionally, the paper will highlight the important differences of each type of
inspection services, thus explaining the need to develop individual specification sections to correspond for each type of
infrared thermographic inspection service. These sections include all aspects of such services and are all encompassing
in their scope. The NMS maximizes protection against duplication and errors, while minimizing chances of risk,
misunderstanding and liability. It can be edited and adapted for any size and type of construction project, for
government or the private sector. Building owners and property managers can integrate these thermographic
specifications into their Project Manuals or incorporate them into contractual documents to call up services for building
condition studies. Although the NMS was primarily designed for use in the commercial and light industrial building
industry, the residential construction industry can benefit as well, by modifying any section for their use. This paper will
discuss these differences, and provide suggestions for the development of such a residential specification format.
Air leakage occurs in a variety of different ways through all types of exterior walls. In cold or warm climates, air leakage is accompanied with moisture transport. This moisture transport when migrating through dew point temperatures, leads to moisture accumulation within wall assemblies. This moisture accumulation may result in premature deterioration and mould formation given appropriate prolonged environmental conditions. Commissioning of air barrier assemblies using infrared thermography is an effective means of locating areas of air leakage defects. Since the environmental conditions that commissioning or building condition inspections are carried out vary considerably, the resultant air leakage thermal patterns on wall surfaces vary accordingly. This paper will outline the various types of thermal patterns created by both positive and negative building pressures during exterior inspection of various types of masonry clad buildings. These thermal patterns can be extrapolated to similar naturally occurring air leakage thermal patterns created by wind, stack effect and lack of existing mechanical system pressurization. This paper will outline the variable thermal pattern conditions created by cavity wall construction in addition to homogeneous solid wall construction and face seal type assemblies.
A new type of exterior building enclosure called the dynamic buffer zone (DBZ) system is being designed and built for both new projects and retrofit of existing buildings. Dry conditioned air is forced into and out of interstitial exterior wall cavities by means of dedicated mechanical systems in such a manner as to constantly ensure positive pressure within the cavities relative to interior environments. The primary reason for implementation of this type of design solution is to ensure elimination of moisture accumulation from either interior or exterior sources within the enclosure assemblies. Enclosure cavities are maintained at such low absolute humidity that the cavity air maintains a dew point temperature below the outdoor temperature for most of the time during winter. Since these types of building enclosures rely on mechanical systems, performance verification and commissioning are key components to the success of the assembly to achieve its objectives. Pressure differential, relative humidity and temperature sensors are necessary to ensure effective operation of these types of assemblies but they cannot determine the performance of all areas of exterior assemblies. Infrared thermography is used in combination with data from these sensors to determine the hygrothermal performance of all areas of enclosure assemblies. This paper will discuss the methodology of DBZ wall commissioning and some of the issues related to detection of improper wall assembly performance.
Thermal comfort complaints within work places are one of the leading causes of workforce productivity loss within office environments. Generally, mechanical systems are relied on to provide adequate indoor environments. In many situations, these systems cannot provide suitable work environments due to unacceptable asymmetrical radiant temperature conditions found in exterior zones of building interiors. Public Works and Government Services Canada (PWGSC) has developed methodologies using infrared technology to assist building and office managers in reducing thermal comfort complaints and improve workforce productivity. Detection, verification, remediation and commissioning of solutions are easily and effectively carried out with the assistance of infrared radiometers and proper inspection and analysis procedures. This paper will outline two case studies and detail methodologies used in each case.
Exterior wall assemblies that enclose medium to large buildings can be classified into four generic wall types: (1) masonry, (2) architectural precast, (3) metal and glass curtain wall, (4) insulated steel assemblies. Within these generic types of assemblies there are variations within the cladding type as well as assembly configuration. Investigations of exterior wall assemblies using infrared thermographic radiometers are carried out to obtain information related to: (1) moisture accumulation, (2) air leakage, (3) variations within thermal resistances of similar assembly configuration, and (4) structural thermal bridging. Each generic type of wall assembly is designed to perform in a different way and their use in various conditions are governed by their performance specification. The thermal patterns generated by each of these wall types is unique. The tolerances for error on each type of assembly varies. Therefore the inspection methodology for each type of wall assembly needs to be defined to isolate the specific performance parameters relevant to each wall assembly type. This paper identifies the various exterior wall assembly types, discusses the relevant performance parameters that make these assemblies perform properly and defines the inspection requirements necessary for accurate assessment of the deficiencies within the exterior wall enclosures of buildings.
Most present day low and medium rise buildings constructed in Canada use some form of cavity wall design for their exterior walls. These types of wall assemblies use a broad range of cladding materials such as brick, stone, wood, sheet metal, porcelain enamel or metal panels, cementitious materials and plastics. The interior assemblies of these walls include the air barrier, vapor barrier and insulation layers. The cladding is separated from the interior wall assembly by an air space of varying thickness. Dependent upon the temperature differential between the interior and exterior, the temperature between the outer surface of the interior wall assembly and the inner surface of the exterior cladding under conditions in which air movement is restricted will give rise to convective heat loss mechanisms. This paper will look at how these convective heat loss patterns manifest themselves as thermal patterns on exterior surfaces of cladding materials. Similar details will be illustrated under various pressure differential conditions through the entire building envelope assembly. Various types of exterior wall assemblies will be discussed.
The Parliamentary Precinct in Ottawa, Canada is comprised of a number of historic buildings that include the House of Commons, the Senate Chamber, the Parliamentary Library, the Peace Tower, and other buildings that provide offices for parliamentarians and their staff. The majority of these buildings have exterior walls that are made of solid masonry with thicknesses ranging between 400 mm and 800 mm. In some cases, special wall areas are more than 1200 mm thick and are comprised of various types of masonry materials. With winter design temperatures of minus 25 degrees Celsius, more than 170 cm of snowfall, and numerous thaws during the five month heating season, the exterior environmental conditions acting on the exterior wall assemblies of these historic buildings are severe enough to cause masonry and mortar deterioration wherever moisture accumulates during winter months. Infrared thermographic inspections were carried out to locate and identify the casual mechanisms of moisture accumulation within masonry wall assemblies. This paper discusses the types of thermal patterns produced by various mechanisms of heat loss and identifies some of the typical areas where possible masonry deterioration occurs. Knowledge gained from these extensive investigations is used to develop a non destructive test methodology to locate areas of freeze thaw damage as part of a predictive and preventative maintenance program to reduce preservation costs of these historical structures.
This paper looks at the effects of air leakage on insulated stone clad precast panels used in present day construction of large commercial buildings. The building investigated was a newly built twenty story office building in a high density urban setting. Air leakage was suspected as a possible cause for thermal comfort complaints at isolated locations within the perimeter zones of the building. During the warrantee period the building owner asked for a quality control inspection of the air barrier assembly of the building envelope. Infrared thermography was used to locate areas of suspected air leakage within the building envelope. In order to differentiate thermal patterns produced by air leakage, conduction and convection as well as radiation from external sources, the building was inspected from the exterior; (1) after being pressurized for three hours, (2) one hour after the building was depressurized and (3) two and a half hours after total building depressurization was maintained by the building mechanical systems. Thermal images from similar locations were correlated for each time and pressure setting to verify air leakage locations within the building envelope. Areas exhibiting air leakage were identified and contractors were requested to carry out the necessary repairs. The pressure differential across the building envelope needs to be known in order to properly carry out an inspection to identify all locations of air leakage within a building envelope. As well the direction of the air movement and the density of the cladding material need to be accounted for in the proper inspection of these types of wall assemblies.
This paper deals with a case study of a building envelope retrofit of an insulated sheet steel and corrugated metal clad building. The building in discussion is a satellite testing facility which requires specific clean room conditions with controlled interior temperature (22 degree(s)C +/- 1 degree(s)C) and high relative humidity conditions (45% +/- 3%) to facilitate satellite testing programs. Preliminary mechanical system inspections indicated substantial increase in air intake to make up for air leakage losses. An infrared inspection along with an approximate air leakage test of the building envelope was requested by the client to determine the magnitude of the building envelope problem. This investigation concluded that significant air leakage was present throughout the building envelope and that existing mechanical systems did not have sufficient capacity to pressurize the building and negate wind and stack effect. Exfiltration particularly through openings on the top sections of the building were causing interior moisture to saturate wall insulation and render it ineffective. Concern for rusting of metal components was indicated. The subsequent envelope analysis discovered a number of typical metal building details that led to poor air tightness and wall insulation ineffectiveness. These were correlated to infrared investigation data. The retrofit solutions produced for this building not only apply to this building but to other similar building types. Further investigations indicated that air leakage and mechanical system performance were significant problems with buildings using metal cladding systems comparable to this building. Quality control before, during and after construction was identified as an important function of the architectural commissioning of the retrofit work and infrared investigations were used to verify locations of air leakage and insulation effectiveness.
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