This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 9179, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, Authors, Introduction, and Conference Committee listing.

The International PV Quality Assurance Task Force is developing a rating system that provides comparative information about the relative durability of PV modules. Development of accelerated stress tests that can provide such comparative information is seen as a major step toward being able to predict PV module service life. This paper will provide details of the ongoing effort to determine the format of such an overall module rating system. The latest proposal is based on using three distinct climate zones as defined in IEC 60721-2-1 for two different mounting systems. Specific stresses beyond those used in the qualification tests are being developed for each of the selected climate zones.

Current injection during damp heat (DH) test have been reported to accelerate certain type of long-term degradation observed in of photovoltaic (PV) modules deployed in field. In this paper, we present the current status of our damp heat testing with current injection or light irradiation on flexible PV modules, with some preliminary results.

PV arrays of various thin film modules technologies such as CIGS, rigid single-junction amorphous Silicon (glass-to-glass package) and flexible triple-junction amorphous Silicon have been deployed for over 10 years in hot and humid climate at Florida Solar Energy Center. The performance of selected modules from each array was characterized using visual inspection, dark I-V, flasher I-V, electroluminescence and infrared imaging techniques. Performance was evaluated to determine which, if any, degradation mechanisms are a concern for the long-term reliability of this technology.

Simple and accurate methods are needed to monitor and assess PV systems. It is important to characterize and understand the value of the system with regard to safety and performance (including seasonal and geographical variations) as well as operation and maintenance. This documentation is becoming necessary for the secondary or resale value of PV assets. We report the results from an analysis of a commercial c-Si PV array owned and operated by DuPont. Our technical assessment consists of remote monitoring, field inspection with visual examination and thermal imaging to create a pareto chart of degradation modes, and laboratory analysis. A comparison of remote monitoring and site inspection is presented as well as laboratory analysis (nondestructive and destructive test methods) of modules removed from the service environment. Degradation modes and quality issues became evident as electrical, optical, physical or chemical defects developed with system age. This evaluation provided system data, documented quality issues, and quantified the cost of ownership.

Lifecycle testing of full-scale photovoltaic (PV) modules was conducted in a large-sized, accelerated-degradation chamber in our labs that enables full-solar-spectrum irradiance, temperature, and humidity control. In-situ measurement of both polycrystalline and monocrystalline silicon PV module energy conversion characteristics were examined under environmental lifecycle conditions representative of Tucson, AZ. Specifically, the performance degradation of a Hanwha 295 W polycrystalline PV module and of a SunPower 320 W monocrystalline PV module were evaluated and compared. Results indicate that the initial efficiency of the polycrystalline module and the subsequent annual degradation occurred within expected ranges for that system. In contrast, the single-crystal module exhibited both a significant decrease in PV module efficiency during the test cycle, and early evidence of environmentally-induced materials degradation across the module. The temperature and time-dependence of PV module behavior were extracted to provide insight into early-stage performance degradation under conditions approximating field-relevant environments.

Outdoor product reliability testing of MiaSolé Glass-Glass CIGS Modules in different external environments is an important aspect of determining the overall product durability and quality. The multi-year performance of MiaSolé modules in several different test regions will be presented. MiaSolé has implemented outdoor testing in Dry and Hot region (Phoenix, Arizona); Hot and Humid (Miami, Florida); Seasonally Cold with Snowfall (Medina, Ohio) and at MiaSolé Headquarters in Santa Clara, CA. MiaSolé used a second party to perform the outdoor testing in Arizona, Florida, and Ohio. We will review the details of the test site setup, installation, on-site implementation, data transfer and analysis methodology.

Bypass diodes are installed in Photovoltaic (PV) modules in order to prevent the application of high reverse voltage across the shaded cells in the event of partial shading of the module. Crystalline silicon (c-Si) modules have one bypass diode per 18-20 cells while thin film modules have at most one bypass diode per module. Ideally, bypass diodes are expected to turn on as soon as a current mismatch is detected between various strings of cells inside the module, which typically occurs in the event of partial shading. However, limited information is available on the actual switching characteristics of bypass diodes in field. In this paper, effect of incremental shading of various cells on the flasher I-V curve of a commercial 60-cell c-Si module was studied. Cell combinations in various strings were shaded with operational bypass diodes in the module and effect on module performance parameters such as Voc, Isc, Pmax and Fill Factor was discussed. Consequently one bypass diode in the module was short circuited and open circuited respectively and again the effect of shading on the I-V curve was investigated. Techniques for identifying short circuited and open circuited bypass diodes from I-V curve are presented.

The transmission level of the incident light on the photovoltaic (PV) modules depends on the angle of incidence (AOI) and air/superstrate interface. The AOI dependence for the air/glass interface has already been well established. When the glass superstrate is covered by a soil/dust layer, the air/glass interface is altered and thereby changes the AOI dependence to air/soil/glass interface. In this work, PV modules retrieved from the field that had different dust densities have been measured for the dependence of the AOI curves on the dust gravimetric densities. It was determined that the AOI curve is inversely related to the soil density. The critical AOI for the air/glass interface is about 57° and it shifts dramatically as the soil gravimetric density (g/m²) increases. The measured AOI curves were then fitted and validated with the analytical/empirical models reported in the literature.

Improvement of energy efficiency in the SunSmart Schools Emergency Shelters requires new methods for optimizing the energy consumption within the shelters. One major limitation in current systems is the requirement of converting direct current (DC) power generated from the PV array into alternating current (AC) power which is distributed throughout the shelters. Oftentimes, this AC power is then converted back to DC to run certain appliances throughout the shelters resulting in a significant waste of energy due to DC to AC and then again AC to DC conversion. This paper seeks to extract the maximum value out of PV systems by directly powering essential load components within the shelters that already run on DC power without the use of an inverter and above all to make the system reliable and durable. Furthermore, additional DC applications such as LED lighting, televisions, computers and fans operated with DC brushless motors will be installed as replacements to traditional devices in order to improve efficiency and reduce energy consumption. Cost of energy storage technologies continue to decline as new technologies scale up and new incentives are put in place. This will provide a cost effective way to stabilize the energy generation of a PV system as well as to provide continuous energy during night hours. It is planned to develop a pilot program of an integrated system that can provide uninterrupted DC power to essential base load appliances (heating, cooling, lighting, etc.) at the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC) command center for disaster management. PV arrays are proposed to be installed on energy efficient test houses at FSEC as well as at private homes having PV arrays where the owners volunteer to participate in the program. It is also planned to monitor the performance of the PV arrays and functioning of the appliances with the aim to improve their reliability and durability. After a successful demonstration of the hybrid DC microgrid based emergency shelter together with the monitoring system, it is planned to replicate it at other schools in Florida and elsewhere to provide continuous power for essential applications, maximizing the value of PV generation systems.

The paper provides latest update on the activities performed by the group #4-diodes, shading and reverse bias of the PV Module Quality Assurance Task Force (PVQAT) in the areas such as electrostatic discharge testing and standards, thermal runaway testing, diode junction temperature measurement techniques, thermal endurance tests and analysis of field failures. Philosophy, motivation and future direction for the group #4 is also discussed.

An ‘hybrid’ degradation setup, in which humidity, temperature and illumination are used in order to accelerate degradation of CIGS, has been developed. This setup consists of a climate chamber, which can vary the temperature and humidity. Furthermore, an area of 80x80 cm² is illuminated, which allows both the study of light induced behvaior and the in-situ measurement of the IV curve of the cell during the test, so the degradation behavior can be observed in time. The IV output is automatically logged and characteristic parameters like efficiency, currents, voltages, ideality factor and resistance can be extracted. The 40x40 cm² in the center of the illuminated area was calibrated BAA according to IEC norm 60904-9. Twelve cells or minimodules can be degraded and measured in-situ at the same time. The continuous in-situ IV measurements allowed us to do various studies, including the determination of the temperature dependency and of the impact of light and dark exposure on the performance of CIGS solar cells. Furthermore, the impact of different Na and K concentrations in the CIGS absorber layer on the ininial as well as long term performance of CIGS solar cells was studied.

Time-series insolation, environmental, thermal and power data were analyzed in a statistical analytical approach to identify the thermal performance of microinverters on dual-axis trackers under real-world operating conditions. This study analyzed 24 microinverters connected to 8 different brands of photovoltaic (PV) modules from July through October 2013 at the Solar Durability and Lifetime Extension (SDLE) SunFarm at Case Western Reserve University. Exploratory data analysis shows that the microinverter's temperature is strongly correlated with ambient temperature and PV module temperature, and moderately correlated with irradiance and AC power. Noontime data analysis reveals the variations of thermal behavior across different brands of PV module. Hierarchical clustering using the Euclidean distance measure principle was applied to noontime microinverter temperature data to group the similarly behaved microinverters. A multiple regression predictive model has been developed based on ambient temperature, PV module temperature, irradiance and AC power data to predict the microinverters temperature connected with different brands PV modules on dual-axis trackers.

Aluminum doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Al) layers were exposed to the atmospheric gases carbondioxide (CO₂), oxygen (O₂), nitrogen (N₂) and air as well as liquid H₂O purged with these gases, in order to investigate the chemical degradation behavior of these layers. The samples were analyzed by electrical, compositional and optical measurements before, during and after exposure to these conditions in order to follow the degradation behavior of these layers in time. We have shown that ZnO:Al layers degraded in the presence of a mixture of H₂O and CO₂. Individually, CO₂ does not impact the degradation at all during the tested period, while the individual impact of H₂O is small. However, when CO₂ is also present, the concentration of OH increases greatly in the bulk and even more at the air/ZnO:Al and the ZnO:Al/glass interfaces. Carbon based species are then also present, indicating that Zn5(OH)6(CO3)2 is also formed at the grain boundaries. The degradation of ZnO:Al was accompanied by the occurrence of holes in the ZnO:Al layer near the ZnO:Al/glass interface. The impact of gaseous O₂ as well as water purged with N₂ and O₂ on ZnO:Al degradation is very small. Complete Cu(In,Ga)Se₂ solar cells were also exposed to unpurged liquid H₂O and H₂O purged with CO₂, O₂, N₂ and air. The samples exposed to H₂O purged with air and CO₂ showed a rapid decrease in efficiency after approximately 180 hours of exposure. This efficiency decrease is mainly driven by a very rapid decrease in current density and an increase in series resistance.

Long term reliability is not well addressed by current standards for PV modules or components, and developing accelerated weathering stress protocols to test the resistance of key components to wear-out is an active area of research. A first step is to understand and quantify the range of actual stresses modules will encounter in the various mounting configurations and in-service environments. In this paper, we use real-world data to benchmark PV module service environments in hot/dry, hot/wet, and temperate environments, with subsequent analysis to translate the microclimate data into a portfolio of practical weathering instrument settings.

Degradation in performance of a PV module attributable to moisture ingress has received significant attention in PV reliability research. Assessment of field performance of PV modules against moisture ingress through product-level testing in temperature-humidity control chambers poses challenges. Development of a meaningful acceleration factor model is challenging due to different rates of degradation of components embedded in a PV module, when exposed to moisture. Test results are typically a convolution of moisture barrier performance of the edge seal and degradation of laminated components when exposed to moisture. It is desirable to have an alternate method by which moisture barrier performance of the edge seal in its end product form can be assessed in any given field conditions, independent of particular cell design. In this work, a relatively inexpensive test technique was developed to test the edge seal in its end product form in a manner that is decoupled from other components of the PV module. A theoretical framework was developed to assess moisture barrier performance of edge seal with desiccants subjected to different conditions. This framework enables the analysis of test results from accelerated tests and prediction of the field performance of the edge seal. Results from this study lead to the conclusion that the edge seal on certain Miasole glass-glass modules studied is effective for the most aggressive weather conditions examined, beyond the intended service.

A lifetime of 20-30 years is generally regarded as necessary for photovoltaic modules to achieve economic break even. As a consequence, understanding how to improve the durability and reliability of the modules is becoming a necessity. Photovoltaic modules are exposed to extremely harsh conditions of heat, humidity, and ultraviolet (UV) radiation which affect the properties of the encapsulant material and cause yellowing, delamination and degradation of the material, which knock on effects on the performance and the long-term reliability of photovoltaic modules. This study addresses the impact of UV on the photochemical degradation of Ethylene-vinyl Acetate (EVA). Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy in Attenuated Total Reflectance (FTIR-ATR) mode was performed on aged samples. The samples were exposed to UV light from a xenon lamp at 0.68 W/m2 at 340 nm with exposure up to 1000 hours. The FTIR-ATR measurement shows significant changes in the absorption at 1740 cm^-1, 1720 cm^-1 and 910 cm^-1 which correspond to acetate, carboxylic acid and vinyl group respectively. It is shown that the UV exposure is the most significant aging factor. The rate of the photooxidation of EVA is compared by measuring the changes of absorbance at 1720 cm^-1 with the UV irradiation time.

Polymeric backsheets are an important component affecting the performance and durability of photovoltaic modules. The optical properties of the backsheet should be considered in the design and performance of a photovoltaic module and the stability and durability of optical properties have an impact on power, safety and appearance. Changes in optical properties in fielded modules and accelerated durability testing are compared. IR analysis was conducted on various backsheet materials in accelerated durability testing and compared to outdoor performance to better understand the relevant chemical changes and associated degradation mechanisms. The connection between optical properties and chemical changes is discussed.

Series connection of PV modules results in buildup of high voltage between the frame and cell circuit which leads to leakage current flow through the module packaging materials. Long term application of high voltage bias results in PV module degradation by Potential Induced Degradation (PID). A novel device called custom laminate is developed at Florida Solar Energy Center that can identify dominant leakage current paths in PV module packaging materials. In this paper, insulation resistance tests are carried out on a commercial 60-cell c-Si module and the nature of leakage current as a function of aluminum foil configuration, applied voltage and duration is studied. The insights gained from the analysis of leakage currents under various circumstances are used to obtain more accurate and reliable measurements from the custom laminate.

Polymeric multilayer backsheets provide protection for the backside of photovoltaic (PV) module from the damage of moisture and ultraviolet (UV). Due to the nature of multilayer films, certain material property characterization of a backsheet could only be studied by examining its cross-section parallel to the thickness direction of the film. In this study, commercial PPE (polyethylene terephthalate (PET)/PET/ethylene vinyl acetate (EVA)) backsheet films were aged on the NIST (National Institute of Standards and Technology) SPHERE (Simulated Photodegradation via High Energy Radiant Exposure) with UV irradiance at 170 W/m² (300 nm to 400 nm) under accelerated weathering conditions of 85°C and two relative humidity (R.H.) levels of 5% (low) and 60% (high). Cryo-microtomy was used to obtain cross-sectional PPE samples with a flat surface parallel to the thickness direction, and chemical depth profiling of multilayers was conducted by Raman microscopic mapping. Atomic force microscopy with peak force tapping mode was used complementarily for cross-sectional imaging. The results revealed that the PPE backsheet films were comprised of five main layers, including pigmented-PET, core PET, inner EVA, pigmented-EVA and outer EVA, along with their interfacial regions and two adhesive layers. UV and moisture degradation on the outer pigmented PET layer was clearly observed; while the damage on the core PET layer was less significance, indicating that the outer pigmented PET layer effectively reduced the damage from UV. In high R.H. exposure, both adhesive layers were severely deteriorated. It was found that the EVA layers were susceptible to moisture at elevated temperature, especially for the pigmented-EVA. Based on the results of accelerated weathering, this depth profiling study brings new understanding to the mechanisms of failure observed in polymeric multilayer backsheets during field exposure.

We report here on Photovoltaic (PV) module durability issues associated with junction boxes which are under study in Task 10 of the International PV Quality Assurance Task Force (PVQAT). A number of failure modes are being identified in junction boxes in PV arrays in the field which have less than 5 years outdoor operation. Observed failure modes include melted contacts and plastic walls in the junction boxes, separated external connectors and broken latches. Standard IEC and UL tests for modules are designed to expose early mortality failures due to materials selection and design in the assembled module and their impact on performance and safety. Test standards for individual junction box components, when not part of a PV module, are still in development. We will give an overview of the reported field failures associated with junction boxes, and examine standard development as it may impact on testing for durability of junction box connectors over a 25 year life.

The impact of combined environment conditions (mechanical state, temperature, and relative humidity) on microcrack propagation characteristics in p-type monocrystalline, photovoltaic-grade Si wafers was examined. A four-point bend apparatus was used to impose static strain conditions in 280 micron thick monocrystalline Si wafers containing microindentation-initiated crack centers. The specimen under test was simultaneously subjected to varied temperature and relative humidity conditions within a controlled environment chamber. Microcrack length was monitored after exposure to two sets of temperature and relative humidity conditions (i.e. 20℃ and 33%, 40℃ and 60% respectively) using scanning electron microscopy. Two primary stages of crack elongation behavior were observed under both of the combined environment conditions. Specifically, an early-time, more rapid growth period occurred, followed by more limited crack growth at later times. The deceleration of crack propagation is consistent with stress relaxation accompanying crack elongation under the constant strain conditions imposed. In general, an increase in the average microcrack propagation rate within both growth rate ranges and in the final overall change in average crack length was observed under elevated temperature and humidity conditions. These findings support the probable role of local crack-tip environment on microcrack evolution.

The influence of manufacturing quality on the reliability of PV modules coming out of today's factories has been, and is still, under estimated among investors and buyers. The main reason is perception. Contrary to popular belief, PV modules are not a commodity. Module quality does differ among module brands. Certification alone does not guarantee the quality or reliability of a module. Cost reductions in manufacturing have unequivocally affected module quality. And the use of new, cheaper materials has had a measureable impact on module reliability. The need for meaningful manufacturing quality standards has been understood by the leading technical institutions and important industry players. The fact that most leading PV panel manufacturers have been certified according to ISO 9001 has led to some level of improvement and higher effectiveness. The new ISO 9001 PV QMS standards will be a major step in providing a tool to assess PV manufacturers' quality management systems. The current lack of sufficient standards has still got a negative influence on the quality of modules being installed today. Today every manufacturer builds their modules in their own way with little standardization or adherence to quality processes and methods, which are commonplace in other manufacturing industries. Although photovoltaic technology is to a great extent mature, the way modules are being produced has changed significantly over the past few years and it continues to change at a rapid pace. Investors, financiers and lenders stand the most to gain from PV systems over the long-term, but also the most to lose. Investors, developers, EPC, O&M and solar asset management companies must all manage manufacturing quality more proactively or they will face unexpected risks and failures down the road. Manufacturing quality deserves more transparency and attention, as it is a major driver of module performance and reliability. This paper will explain the benefits of good manufacturing quality and the dangers in poor manufacturing quality. The paper also explains why buyers and long-term investors need to pay close attention to the day-to-day manufacturing quality of module manufacturers. We demonstrate how these quality risks can be assessed and mitigated by independent diligence, professional contracting and smart quality assurance processes that can be easily built into any module procurement process. We highlight the steps to ensure that every module used in a PV system is built to quality standards that support the long-term reliability of a PV system.

In this work, the use of manufacturing metrology across the supply chain to improve crystalline silicon (c-Si) photovoltaic (PV) module reliability and durability is addressed. Additionally, an overview and summary of a recent extensive literature survey of relevant measurement techniques aimed at reducing or eliminating the probability of field failures is presented. An assessment of potential gaps is also given, wherein the PV community could benefit from new research and demonstration efforts. This review is divided into three primary areas representing different parts of the c-Si PV supply chain: (1) feedstock production, crystallization and wafering; (2) cell manufacturing; and (3) module manufacturing.