This PDF file contains the front matter associated with SPIE Proceedings Volume 7274, including the Title Page, Copyright information, Table of Contents, and the Conference Committee listing.

As optical lithography reaches it physical limits, alternative technologies become interesting. There have been several such alternatives that are still optical, but have some departure from conventional projection methods. This papers presents some of these alternative optical technologies, namely the use of surface plasmons and plasmonic lithography, metamaterials and superlenses, evanescent wave lithography, solid immersion lithography, and stimulated transmission depletion (StED) lithography. Additionally, the viability of interferometric lithography (IL) is addressed for application to sub-32nm generations by using an information content metric and comparing results to 193nm lithography, double patterning, and EUV.

Historically, lithographic scaling was driven by both improvements in wavelength and numerical aperture. Recently, the semiconductor industry completed the transition to 1.35NA immersion lithography. The industry is now focusing on double patterning techniques (DPT) as a means to circumvent the limitations of Rayleigh diffraction. Here, the IBM Alliance demonstrates the extendibility of several double patterning solutions that enable scaling of logic constructs by decoupling the pattern spatially through mask design or temporally through innovative processes. This paper details a set of solutions that have enabled early 22 nm learning through careful lithography-design optimization.

Computational lithography (CL) is becoming more and more of a fundamental enabler of advanced semiconductor processing technology, and new requirements for CL models are arising from new applications such as model-based process tuning. In this paper we study the impact of realistic machine parameters that can be incorporated in a modern CL model, and provide an experimental assessment of model improvements with respect to prediction of scanner tuning effects. The data demonstrates improved model accuracy and prediction by inclusion of scanner-type specific modeling capabilities and machine data in the CL model building process. In addition to scanner effects, we study laser bandwidth tuning effects and the accuracy of corresponding model predictions by comparison against experimental data. The data demonstrate that the models predict well wafer CD variations resulting from laser BW tuning. We also find that using realistic spectral density distribution of the laser can provide more accurate results than the commonly assumed modified Lorentzian line shape.

Contact hole patterning and especially sub resolution assist feature (SRAF) insertion and optical proximity correction (OPC) have become an extremely critical element of enabling continued shrink of CMOS technology. These elements of mask generation are fundamental to the success of technology execution. As off-axis illumination modes have been introduced to resolve smaller pitches, forbidden pitches emerge that need to be considered in random logic layouts. Optimized placement of assist features for these pitches is extremely important for overall process window and tolerance budget considerations. Several techniques have recently been developed for model based SRAF optimization. These typically focus only on optimizing the aerial image through focus, but may not include sensitivity to mask error as well. These approaches will be evaluated and discussed. Total CD uniformity is presented as a metric for evaluation of mask solutions. This includes the impact of dose and focus, but also masks error in estimating the total CD variation of a contact patterning process. The SRAF solution with the lowest overall variation is the winner. This methodology is presented for parametric through pitch features, and logic patterns.

The k1 factor continues to be driven downwards, in order to enable the 32 nm feature generation and beyond. Due to the extremely small process window that will be available for such demanding imaging challenges, it is necessary not only for each unit contributing to the imaging system to be driven to its ultimate performance capability, but also that active techniques that can expand the process window and robustness of the imaging against various kinds of imaging parameter be implemented. One such technique is a Source & Mask Optimization¹ (SMO). In this paper we are going to study the effect of SMO and discuss its application to ArF exposure tools. Free form optimization example and constrained optimization will be compared with conventional illumination setting. Furthermore realization of the SMO with sPURE, which is optical element to generate customized illumination discussed.

Traditional OPC is essentially an iterated feedback process, in which the position of each target edge is corrected by adjusting a controlling mask edge. However, true optimization adjusts the mask variables collectively, and in so-called SMO approaches (for Source Mask Optimization) the source variables are adjusted as well. Optimized masks often have high edge density if synthesis methods are used in an effort to obtain a more global solution, and the correspondence between individual mask edges and printed target edges becomes less clearcut than in traditionally OPC'd masks. Restrictions on phase shift and MEEF tend to reduce this departure from traditional solutions, but they trade off the theoretical performance advantage in dose and focus latitude that phase shift provides for a reduced sensitivity to thick mask topography and to manufacturing error. Mask variables couple across long distances only in the indirect sense of stitched connection across chains of neighbor-to-neighbor interactions, but source variables interact directly across entire masks. Source+mask optimization of large areas therefore involves long-range communication across the parts of the calculation, though the number of source variables involved is small. Tradeoffs between source structure, pattern diversity, and design regularity are illustrated, taking into account the limited (but unknown) number of binding features in a large layout. SMO's exploitation of complex source designs is shown to provide superior solutions to those obtained by mask optimization alone. Moreover, in development work the ability to adjust the source opens up new options in process engineering, and these will become particularly valuable when future exposure tools provide greater flexibility in programmable source control. Such capabilities can be explored in a preliminary way by using programmed multi-scans to compose optimized compound sources with e.g. multiple poles or annular elements.

We demonstrate experimentally for the first time the feasibility of applying SMO technology using pixelated illumination. Wafer images of SRAM contact holes were obtained to confirm the feasibility of using SMO for 22nm node lithography. There are still challenges in other areas of SMO integration such as mask build, mask inspection and repair, process modeling, full chip design issues and pixelated illumination, which is the emphasis in this paper. In this first attempt we successfully designed a manufacturable pixelated source and had it fabricated and installed in an exposure tool. The printing result is satisfactory, although there are still some deviations of the wafer image from simulation prediction. Further experiment and modeling of the impact of errors in source design and manufacturing will proceed in more detail. We believe that by tightening all kind of specification and optimizing all procedures will make pixelated illumination a viable technology for 22nm or beyond. Publisher's Note: The author listing for this paper has been updated to include Carsten Russ. The PDF has been updated to reflect this change.

We present a method for optimizing a free-form illuminator implemented using a diffractive optical element (DOE). The method, which co-optimizes the source and mask taking entire images of circuit clips into account, improves the common process-window and 2-D image fidelity. We compare process-windows for optimized standard and free-form DOE illuminations for arrays and random placements of contact holes at the 45 nm and 32 nm nodes. Source-mask cooptimization leads to a better-performing source compared to source-only optimization. We quantify the effect of typical DOE manufacturing defects on lithography performance in terms of NILS and common process-window.

Source optimization in optical lithography has been the subject of increased exploration in recent years [1-4], resulting in the development of multiple techniques including global optimization of process window [4]. The performance advantages of source optimization have been demonstrated through theory, simulation, and experiment. This paper will emphasize global optimization of sources over multiple patterns, e.g. co-optimization of critical SRAM cells and the critical pitches of random logic, and implement global source optimization into current resolution enhancement techniques (RETs). The effect on optimal source due to considering multiple patterns is investigated. We demonstrate that optimal source for limited patterns does work for a large clip of layout. Through theoretical analysis and simulations, we explain that only critical patterns and/or critical combinations of patterns determine the final optimal source; for example those patterns that contain constraints which are active in the solution. Furthermore, we illustrate, through theory and simulation, that pixelated sources have better performance than generic sources and that in general it is impossible for generic sources to construct a truly optimal solution. Sensitivity, tool matching, and lens heating issues for pixelated sources are also discussed in this paper. Finally, we use a RETs example with wafer data to demonstrate the benefits of global source optimization.

Self-Aligned Double patterning (SADP) technology has been identified as the main stream patterning technique for NAND FLASH manufacturers for 3xnm and beyond. This paper demonstrates the successful fabrication of 32nm halfpitch electrical testable NAND FLASH wordline structures using a 3-mask flow. This 3-mask flow includes one critical lithography step and two non-critical lithography steps. It uses a positive tone (spacer as mask) approach to create 32nm doped poly wordlines. Electrical measurements of line resistance are performed on these doped poly wordlines to demonstrate the capability of this patterning technique. Detailed results and critical process considerations, including lithography, deposition and etch, will be discussed in this paper.

Although the Numerical Aperture (NA) has been greatly improved from 0.93 (dry) to 1.35 (wet) by the introduction of modern water immersion 193nm scanner since 2001, the realistic single exposure photolithography printing for mass production is still limited to ~40nm, even with the help of a variety of Resolution Enhancement Techniques (RETs). Theoretically, the 193nm immersion scanner with high index fluid or Extreme UV (EUV) scanner with a significantly shorter wavelength of 13.5nm would be the logical successors to water immersion 193nm scanner. However, considering tremendous technical difficulties to work with high index fluids and relatively immature and very low productivity of EUV at the moment, it's likely that both candidates have little chance to entering production prior to 2012. Additionally, the production schedule can be further pushed out due to formidable initial investment for the costly equipment and consumables associated with EUV given the present worldwide economic recession. Nano-imprint may be attractive for its low cost and versatile nature, however, long-term stability and logistics under production stress yet to be established. The hope to continue the thrust of Moore's Law into the sub-40nm regime before EUV era heavily counts on the success of the so-called Double Patterning Techniques (DPT). A variety of integration schemes have been developed or are still under development to harness the full capacity of DPT. Among them the spacer double patterning approach stands out because of the self-aligned characteristics and a cumulative great deal of experience on the handling of the spacer-related processes in traditional CMOS process integration. The final goal of most research works around Self-Aligned Double Patterning (SADP) focuses on achieving minimal added cost and high quality printing at the same time. However, most of the time the quality and the cost are compromised by applying non-production proven new material/new hardware and/or fancy integration approaches. In our study we purposely apply a more "classical" and relatively conservative integration scheme, with all unit process steps long proven in previous volume production. By carefully optimizing the relative CMP, films deposition, etch and cleaning processes, we are able to demonstrate 30nm line/space patterns by an NA 0.93 dry 193nm scanner with optimal CDU better than 3nm and high frequency line edge roughness (LER) close to 2nm/side. Additionally, by analyzing wafer quality for alignment and alignment residual in various alignment & overlay mark designs, projected residual overlay as little as 4nm can be readily obtained.

While spacer is essential to separate the second lines from the first lines at negative tone spacer patterning technique, Spacer brings side effects such as increase in process step as well as CD budget induced by spacer. To eliminate these side effects, we have chosen the combination of photo resist as the first lines and developer soluble bottom ARC as the second lines at negative tone spacer patterning technique. This process scheme consists of only two mask steps; one is critical mask for the first lines in cell and peripheral cell, and another is non-critical mask for recess of the second lines in cell area and removal of the second lines in peripheral area. By the diffusion of acid from photo resist into developer soluble bottom ARC, developer soluble bottom ARC adjacent to photo resist of the first line is transformed into the substance, which can be easily removed by developer dispensed after the second mask exposure. With the adoption of developer soluble bottom ARC, we can expect to make progress in cost reduction at negative tone spacer patterning technique.

The Intel 45nm Penryn^TM CPU was a landmark design, not only for its implementation of high-K metal gate materials¹, but also for the adoption of a nearly gridded design rule (GDR) layout architecture for the poly silicon gate layer². One key advantage of using gridded design rules is reduction of design rules and ease of 1- dimensional scaling compared to complex random 2-dimensinal layouts. In this paper, we demonstrate the scaling capability of GDR to 16nm and 22nm logic nodes. Copying the design of published images for the Intel 45nm Penryn^TM poly-silicon layer², we created a mask set designed to duplicate those patterns targeting a final pitch of 64nm and 52nm using Sidewall Spacer Double Patterning for the extreme pitch shrinking and performed exploratory work at final pitch of 44nm. Mask sets were made in both tones to enable demonstration of both damascene (dark field) patterning and poly-silicon gate layer (clear field) GDR layouts, although the results discussed focus primarily on poly-silicon gate layer scaling. The paper discusses the line-and-cut double patterning technique for generating GDR structures, the use of sidewall spacer double patterning for scaling parallel lines and the lithographic process window (CD and alignment) for applying cut masks. Through the demonstration, we highlight process margin issues and suggest corrective actions to be implemented in future demonstrations and more advanced studies. Overall, the process window is quite large and the technique has strong manufacturing possibilities.

Double patterning (DP) was investigated for logic layout by using rigorous 3D wafer-topography/ lithography simulator with water immersion lithography. With increasing complexity of DP process, 3D wafer-topography effect of stack structure must be considered, because of its impact to lithography. The main purpose of this paper is to present how to optimize both process and design to ensure overlap and connectivity of split pattern, by solving electro-magnetic field distribution in wafer substrate as well as resist region. Process window was analyzed varying not only focus, dose and split masking layers, but also considering topography of substrate stack structures, which cause local reflectivity variations. Arbitrary 45nm logic layout including L-shape pattern was analyzed. Process window of second Litho step was analyzed. Due to reflection from Hard Mask, HM (the first Litho step) the process window was restricted and became smaller. The other option, swapping first and second Litho masks is a better choice with respect to impact of wafer topography. The optimization of stack process condition was analyzed by using contour plot of reflectivity, as functions of n, k and thickness of materials inside BARC. The concept of Extended NILS considering local reflectivity variation from wafer process is able to explain the variation of resist sidewall slope and Exposure Latitude. Therefore, it is useful to analyze connectivity at stitching point by using 3D wafer-topography/ lithography simulator and to optimize the combination of DP process and layout stitching design. Furthermore as design of advanced process, LLE (Litho-Litho-Etch), with resist freezing was simulated.

The ever-shrinking circuit device dimensions challenge lithographers to explore viable patterning for the 32 nm halfpitch node and beyond. Significant improvements in immersion lithography have allowed extension of optical lithography down to 45 nm node and likely into early 32 nm node development. In the absence of single-exposure patterning solutions, double patterning techniques are likely to extend immersion lithography for 32 nm node manufacturing. While several double patterning techniques have been proposed as viable manufacturing solutions, cost, along with technical capability, will dictate which candidate is adopted by the industry. Dual-tone development (DTD) has been proposed as a potential cost-effective double patterning technique.1 Dual-tone development was reported as early as in the late 1990's by Asano.2 The basic principle of dual-tone imaging involves processing exposed resist latent images in both positive tone (aqueous base) and negative tone (organic solvent) developers. Conceptually, DTD has attractive cost benefits since it enables pitch doubling without the need for multiple etch steps of patterned resist layers. While the concept for DTD technique is simple to understand, there are many challenges that must be overcome and understood in order to make it a manufacturing solution. This work presents recent advances and challenges associated with DTD. Experimental results in conjunction with simulations are used to understand and advance learning for DTD. Experimental results suggest that clever processing on the wafer track can be used to enable DTD beyond 45 nm half-pitch dimensions for a given resist process. Recent experimental results also show that DTD is capable of printing <0.25 k1-factor features with an ArF immersion scanner. Simulation results showing co-optimization of process variables, illumination conditions, and mask properties are presented.

A neural network (NN)-based approach with a lumped model is found to be much more promising to predict process proximity effects (PPEs) caused through space patterning processes than a conventional tandem-based approach with a consecutive physical model. The NN-based lumped approach can improve PPE prediction accuracy by 25% compared to the conventional tandem-based approach, subject to the same workload of experimental data acquisition, and reach the specification of PPE residual in 3x nm node with smaller amounts of data volume than any other approach. Process proximity correction scheme using the NN-based lumped model built for 3x nm node can achieve the expected correction accuracy for various kinds of one-dimensional patterns. It is anticipated that the NN-based lumped PPE prediction model will greatly improve the prediction and/or correction accuracy in the space patterning technology process for 3x nm node and beyond.

Line/space dimensions for 32nm generation logic are expected to be ~45-50nm at ~90-100nm pitch. It is likely that the node will begin at the upper end of the range, and then shrink by ~10% to a "28nm" node. For the lower end of the range, even with immersion scanners, the Rayleigh k₁ factor is below 0.32. The 22nm logic node should begin with minimum pitches of approximately 70nm, requiring some form of double patterning to maintain k₁ above 0.25. Logic patterning has been more difficult than NAND Flash patterning because random logic was designed with complete "freedom" compared to the very regular patterns used in memory. The logic layouts with bends and multiple pitches resulted in larger rules, un-optimized illumination, and a poorly understood process windows with little control of context-dependent "hot spots."[1] The introduction of logic design styles which use strictly one-directional lines for the critical levels now gives the opportunity for illumination optimization. Gridded Design Rules (GDR) have been demonstrated to give areacompetitive layouts at existing 90, 65, and 45nm logic nodes while reducing CD variability.[2] These benefits can be extended to ≤32nm logic using selective double pass patterning.

Double Patterning (DP) is considered the most viable solution for printing features of the 32nm technology node using 193nm immersion lithography. Independent of the approach of the DP implementation (be it Litho-Etch-Litho-Etch or Litho-Process-Litho-Etch), the second lithography step is influenced by the underlying topography on the wafer. Given the tight constraints on the process, an accurate prediction of the impact of the embedded topography on critical features is inevitable to meet the design requirements of the corresponding device layer. In this paper we use rigorous simulations of the electro-magnetic field distribution to quantify the effect of wafer topography on the second lithography step. In particular, we investigate the impact of the topography on CD control and corresponding process windows for typical 1D patterns. The influence of non-flat BARC, non-flat resist surfaces, hard mask material and process variations in the first litho step is simulated for dual line as well as dual trench processes. A metric to quantify standing waves in resist is introduced and used to optimize BARC thickness. Further, we investigate typical 2D clips of decomposed mask layouts relevant for the 32nm node. The simulation methodology and algorithm performance are presented, in particular with respect to its distributed computing capabilities.

Contact Hole (CH) resolution is limited by the low aerial image contrast using dark field masks. Moreover the 2- Dimensional character of CH is a limiting factor in the use of extreme Resolution Enhancement Techniques for reaching the smallest pitch. These limitations can be overcome if one deconvolves the 2D CH into two exposures of 1D structures (i.e. lines). These 1D structures can indeed be printed at the ultimate resolution limit of the scanner using dipole exposures. Recently, several materials have become available to pattern CH from such a double exposure of line patterns. It is shown in this paper how this concept of deconvolution can be used in different techniques: Two 1D aerial images can be recomposed in order to obtain 2D images which will subsequently be reversed into CH. We can distinguish, on the one hand, a reversal based on the positive development of line crossings into resist pillar patterns, on which are deposited or coated a gap-fill material layer. The pillars are then removed, leaving a masking material layer with holes. On the other hand, negative tone development can be used to reverse directly the recomposed 2D aerial image: while the classical positive development creates pillars, the negative tone development inverses immediately this image to create contact holes in the resist layer. In this paper, we demonstrate the potential of the double exposure method. We characterise three reversal techniques using a NA=1.35 immersion scanner for patterning 40nm or lower CH at pitch 80nm. We also show etch performance of these processes and address the complexity of each solution.

As the technology marches towards the 32nm node and beyond in semiconductor manufacturing, double patterning and double exposure techniques are currently regarded as the potential candidates to produce lines and spaces (L&S) and contact holes (C/H), respectively. In this paper, the Waveguide method, a rigorous electromagnetic field (EMF) solver, is employed to investigate the impact of wafer topographies on two specific double patterning techniques. At first, the topography effects induced by the first patterning on the second lithography process in a lithography-etch-lithographyetch (LELE) process are demonstrated. A new methodology of the bottom anti-reflective coating (BARC) optimization is proposed to reduce the impact of wafer topography on resist profiles. Additionally, an optical proximity correction (OPC) of the second lithography mask is demonstrated to compensate the wafer topography induced asymmetric deformations of line ends. Rigorous EMF simulations of lithographic exposures are also applied to investigate wafer topography effects in a freezing process. The difference between the optical properties of the frozen (first) resist and the second resist potentially causes linewidth variations. Quantitative criteria for tolerable refractive index and extinction differences between the two resist materials are given. The described studies can be used for the optimizations of topographic waferstacks, the OPC of the second litho mask, and for the development of resist materials with appropriate optical properties.

Simulation work centered on double patterning processes often assumes that the problem can be approximated by considering the summation of two simple planar simulations which exhibit no interaction. Although previous work has shown that this assumption seems reasonable for interleaved line or trench patterns, it is less clear how valid it is for stitching areas where features in the two passes deliberately overlap and impinge upon each other. This work uses rigorous optical and physical resist models to study the validity of the planar summation approximation for stitching areas in a representative LELE (Litho-Etch-Litho-Etch) double line-based front end poly-silicon level process and a LELE double trench based back-end metal level process. The results suggest that the approximation holds well for back-end processes employing metal nitride type hardmask materials (which typically exhibit BARC-like optical properties). However significant deviations in behavior are observed for the poly-silicon level process suggesting that the approximation should be used with more caution on front-end processes utilizing transparent or reflective hardmask materials. It is apparent that the optical constants of both the hardmask and BARC , in addition to the tone of the double patterned feature, contribute to deviations from the approximation. Thus it is important to determine the approximation's validity on a process by process basis.

As 193nm lithography continues to be stretched and the k₁ factor decreases, optical proximity correction (OPC) has become a vital part of the lithographer's tool kit. Unfortunately, as is now well known, the design variations of lithographic scanners from different vendors cause them to have slightly different optical-proximity effect (OPE) behavior, meaning that they print features through pitch in distinct ways. This in turn means that their response to OPC is not the same, and that an OPC solution designed for a scanner from Company 1 may or may not work properly on a scanner from Company 2. Since OPC is not inexpensive, that causes trouble for chipmakers using more than one brand of scanner. Clearly a scanner-matching procedure is needed to meet this challenge. Previously, automatic matching has only been reported for scanners of different tool generations from the same manufacturer. In contrast, scanners from different companies have been matched using expert tuning and adjustment techniques, frequently requiring laborious test exposures. Automatic matching between scanners from Company 1 and Company 2 has remained an unsettled problem. We have recently solved this problem and introduce a novel method to perform the automatic matching. The success in meeting this challenge required three enabling factors. First, we recognized the strongest drivers of OPE mismatch and are thereby able to reduce the information needed about a tool from another supplier to that information readily available from all modern scanners. Second, we developed a means of reliably identifying the scanners' optical signatures, minimizing dependence on process parameters that can cloud the issue. Third, we carefully employed standard statistical techniques, checking for robustness of the algorithms used and maximizing efficiency. The result is an automatic software system that can predict an OPC matching solution for scanners from different suppliers without requiring expert intervention.

In this paper we present a methodology to investigate and optimize the CD balance between the four features of a final 32nm lines and space pattern created by spacer pitch doubling. Metrology (SEM and scatterometry) was optimized to measure and separate the two lines and the two spaces of the 32nm features. In case a space unbalance emerged during the various processing steps such as etch and deposition, this was compensated by calculating and feed-back local dose offsets to the scanner. For the spacer process used in this study we observe 20..40% improvement in space CDU and space balance, when applying the dose corrections.

The process window for state of the art chip manufacturing continues to decrease, driven by higher NA exposure tools and lower k1 values. The benefits of immersion lithography for Depth of Focus (DoF) are well known. Yet even with this immersion boost, NA=1.35 tools can push DoF into sub-100nm territory. In addition, immersion processes are subject to new sources of dose and focus variation. In order to realize the full potential of immersion lithography, it is necessary to characterize, understand and attack all sources of process variation. Previous work has established our dose/focus metrology capability¹, in which we expose Process Monitor Grating (PMG) targets with high sensitivity to focus, measure the PMGs using scatterometry, and use the Ausschnitt dose/focus deconvolution approach to determine focus errors to within a few nm and dose errors to within 0.1%. In this paper, we concentrate on applying this capability to the detailed measurements of immersion photoclusters utilizing ASML exposure tools. Results will include: • comparison of Twinscan 1700i and 1900i focus capability • effectiveness of the Reticle Shape Correction (RSC) for non-flat reticles • visualization of non-flat wafer chucks, tilted image planes, and other systematic focus error components • tracking of tool trends over time, using automated monitor wafer flows The highly systematic nature of the observed focus errors suggest potential for future improvements in focus capability.

Given the decrease in k1 factor for 65nm-node lithography technology and beyond, it is increasingly important to understand and control the variables which impact scanner imaging behavior in the lithography process. In this work, we explore using model simulations to characterize and predict imaging effects of these variables, and then based on such information to fine-tune the scanner settings to obtain printing results optimally matched to a reference scanner. The scanner modeling makes use of detailed scanner characteristics as well as wafer CD measurements for accurate model construction. To identify critically mismatched patterns on a production layout, we employ the fast full-chip simulation capability provided by Brion's Tachyon servers. Tachyon simulations are also used to predict wafer impacts of changes in tunable scanner parameters. A set of optimized scanner variable offsets, called a "scanner tuning recipe", is generated to minimize overall imaging mismatch between two scanners. As a proof-of-concept, we have carried out scanner tuning procedures on selected ASML scanners. The results show improvements more than 20% on CD offset RMS values for 2D line-end patterns, production layout patterns, and the mismatched patterns identified with the full-chip simulation. Improvements on wafer-acceptance-test results and production yield on the to-be-tuned scanner are also observed.

Optical imaging of IC critical designs is impacted by optical proximity effects, OPEs, originating from finite numerical aperture of projection lenses used in modern projectors. The OPE's are caused by filtering of pattern diffraction orders falling outside of the lens band pass. Controlling OPEs is so critical to IC performance, that IC design community implemented optical proximity correction, OPC, modifying the IC mask patterns to provide wafer images matching the IC design intent. The mainstream OPC uses optical models representing fundamental imaging setup and it does not capture the impacts of engineering scanner tool constraints. The OPEs are impacted by scanner lens and illuminator signatures causing CD excursions large in comparison to the CD error budgets(1). The magnitude of the scanner impacts on OPEs necessitated new optical modeling paradigm involving imaging models imbedding scanner signatures representing population of scanners of a given type. These scanner-type based models represent quantum leap in accuracy of lithography simulation technology, resulting in OPE and OPC representing a broad range of realistic scanner characteristics(2). In this context, a relevant question is: to what degree, the signatures of individual scanners impact the accuracy of imaging models and OPE predictions? To answer this question, we analyzed optical proximity responses of hyper-NA scanners represented by their signatures. We first studied a set of OPEs impacted by the scanner-type signatures. We then generated a set of corresponding OPEs impacted by the signatures of individual scanners. We compared the two kinds of OPEs and highlighted the scanner-specific image formation responses.

As imaging requirements and limits continue to be pushed tighter and lower, it has become imperative that accurate and repeatable measurement of the projection lens (PL) pupil be readily available. These are important for setup and adjustment of the illumination distribution, measurement and optimization of the lens aberrations, and verification of lens NA and transmission. Accurate testing of these items is critical during initial installation and setup of a photolithography tool, but it continues to prove useful each time any projection lens pupil-image measurement is made. The basic raw data from any such measurement is in the form of a pixelized 'image' captured by a projection lens pupil microscope. Such images have typically been referred to as pupilgrams1, and many prior works have reported on their application and analysis1,2,3. Each of these measurements can be affected by errors in the measurement tool used. The error modes can be broadly divided into two distinct groups: uncompensated transmission loss, and uncompensated distortion (or remapping) error. For instance, in illuminator measurements, the first will yield intensity error and the second will yield image shape mapping error. These errors may or may not lie exclusively in the optics of the measurement tool. But, regardless of their source, they will propagate through the analysis of the pupilgram images. For this reason, at minimum they must be measured and judged for relative impact, if only to confirm that the errors do not change the conclusions or results. In this paper, we will discuss and present methods for measuring the image distortion present in a PL pupil-image microscope. These data are used to build a 'map' of errors vs. position in the lens pupil. The maps then serve as the basis for image-processing-based compensation that can be applied to all subsequent microscope images. A novel vitally important feature of the technique presented is that it calibrates the distortion of the microscope image field using fundamental optical physics. This is achieved by imaging, capturing, and analyzing the diffraction pattern of reticle gratings. Several different reticle pattern pitches are imaged and their diffraction patterns are captured by the microscope. The image field of the microscope is then calibrated to the spacing of the diffraction orders, meaning that the calibration is traceable through fundamental optics to the very precise reticle patterns. Details of this procedure, including an example, will be presented.

Double patterning (DP) is today the main solution to extend immersion lithography to the 32 nm node and beyond. Pitch splitting process with hardmask transfer and spacer process have been developed at CEA-LETI-Minatec. This paper focuses on experimental data using dry ArF lithography with a k1 factor of 0.20 ; the relative impact of each DP step on overlay and CD uniformity budgets is analyzed. In addition, topography issues related to the presence of the patterned hard mask layer during the second imaging step is also investigated. Tool-to-itself overlay, image placement on the reticle and wafer deformation induced by this DP process are evaluated experimentally and resulting errors on CD budget have been determined. CD uniformity error model developed by Nikon describing the relationship between CD and overlay in different DP processes is validated experimentally.

The problem of the alignment tree for double patterning (DP) is presented. When the 2nd DP exposure is aligned to the underlying zero layer, the space CD uniformity is shown to be well outside the budget for the 32 nm HP node. Aligning the 2nd DP layer to the zero layer gives better overlay results, but aligning the 2nd DP pattern to the 1st DP pattern gives results well within the overlay requirements for the 32 nm HP. Aligning the 2nd DP layer to the 1st DP layer is recommended to give the best CD uniformity and overlay results. Experimental results show, qualitatively, the CD uniformity is significantly worse when the 2nd pattern is aligned to the zero layer, but the overlay for both alignment trees could be corrected to roughly the same levels. The raw overlay data shows a significantly different signature for the two alignment trees, possibly caused by alignment mark signal differences between the marks on the zero and 1st layers, or distortion of the zero layer after the first etch. The requirements for a DP exposure tool were reviewed and can be summarized as improved dose control, improved overlay performance, and significantly higher throughput.

Methods to improve accuracy of pattern matching are investigated with our software tool (k1 TUNE). Since pattern matching handles experimental data, resist simulation accuracy, SEM measurement accuracy, and identification of illumination situations used in the software and set in actual scanners are crucial. The methods to reduce their error are proposed. In addition to reducing them, a subtracting method is used to compensate them for better pattern matching. The effectiveness is certificated experimentally with accuracy of 0.010 sigma of illumination and 1~2nm of CD. Furthermore an illumination that keeps CDs constant under defocus is optimized, and the characteristics are confirmed experimentally. By using the software tool under the proposed ways, real pattern matching at fabrication lines has been possible with good accuracy, few retry, and consideration of defocus characteristics.

In this paper, we demonstrate a new methodology for post-etch OPC modeling to compensate for effects of underlayer seen on product wafers. Current resist-only OPC models based on data from flopdown wafers are not always accurate enough to deliver patterning solutions with stringent critical dimension requirements in 45/32nm technology node. Therefore it is necessary to include an etch model into the OPC correction. Both litho and etch model were built using flopdown and integrated wafers to compensate for topography, differential etch due to different underlayer substrate based on local geometry and local loading. The wafer data based on such OPC keyword show significant decrease of critical dimensions offsets of device macros from long poly-line nested structures for gate level. We will compare wafer data from two different OPC model versions built from flopdown and integrated wafer. We will also discuss modeling options in terms of two layer test masks for future technologies.

We have studied the parameter setting dependence on the OPC TAT and OPC accuracy. We have found that we can save OPC TAT with sufficient accuracy by optimizing the optical diameter, fringe length, and the kernel counts in optical simulations of OPC. The optical diameter should be set to the optimal value depending on its mask design regularity. In the kernel-based optical simulations, the residual error is found to drop suddenly at the critical kernel count. This critical kernel count is found to be almost independent of the optical diameter, aberrations, and resist stack structures. On the other hand, it is clarified that the critical kernel count is strongly correlated with the coherence factor of the illuminations. Using this critical kernel count, we can obtain the image intensities with sufficient accuracy. We propose a method to determine fringe length by analyzing the characteristics of the optical kernels that are independent of the mask layouts.

As the industry progresses toward more challenging patterning nodes with tighter error budgets and weaker process windows, it is becoming clear that current single process condition Optical Proximity Corrections (OPC) as well as OPC verification methods such as Optical Rules Checking (ORC) performed at a single process point fail to provide robust solutions through process. Moreover, these techniques can potentially miss catastrophic failures that will negatively impact yield while surely failing to capitalize on every chance to enhance process window. Process-aware OPC and verification algorithms have been developed [1,2] that minimize process variability to enhance yield and assess process robustness, respectively. In this paper we demonstrate the importance of process aware OPC and ORC tools to enable first time right manufacturing solutions, even for technology nodes prior to 45nm such as a 65nm contact level, by identifying critical spots on the layout that became significant yield detractors on the chip but nominal ORC could not catch. Similarly, we will demonstrate the successful application of a process window OPC (PWOPC) algorithm capable of recognizing and correcting for process window systematic variations that threaten the overall RET performance, while maintaining printed contours within the minimum overlay tolerances. Direct comparison of wafer results are presented for two 65nm CA masks, one where conventional nominal OPC was applied and a second one processed with PWOPC. Thorough wafer results will show how our process aware OPC algorithm was able to address and successfully strengthen the lithography performance of those areas in the layout previously identified by PWORC as sensitive to process variations, as well as of isolated and semi-isolated features, for an overall significant yield enhancement.

We present an etch-aware optical proximity correction (OPC) flow that is intended to optimize post-etch patterns on wafer. We take advantage of resource efficient empirical etch models and a model based retargeting scheme to determine post-develop in-plane resist targets required to achieve post-etch critical dimensions. The goal of this flow is to optimize final patterns on wafer rather than two independent patterns from lithography and etch. As part of this flow, we cover important aspects of etch process variability implications for etch aware OPC. Metrics for total pattern transfer are developed and explored with an eye toward optimizing pattern transfer. We present results from a 45 nm poly-silicon and 32 nm shallow trench isolation levels where etch aware OPC has been applied and compare these results with conventional resist based OPC schemes. Finally, implications of this flow for unit process developers in lithography and reactive ion etch are explored. We present a process optimization flow that incorporates model based retargeting into resolution enhancement technology selection, materials selection as well as lithographic and reactive ion etch process development.

A challenge in model-based assist feature placement is to find optimal placements while satisfying mask rules and preventing AF printing. There are numerous strategies for achieving this ranging from fully rule-based methods to pixel-based inversion. Our proposed solution is to identify the optimal locations of assist features using modeling information based strictly on optics and resist stack optical characteristics. Once these positions have been found, preliminary AFs can be placed. At this point suggested sizes and shapes can be identified, although these can later be modified. In a later step, MRC cleanup, printability fixing, and main-pattern OPC can be performed simultaneously. This has the advantage of allowing the use of the full process model to predict the location of OPC edges accurately, and use calibrated or 3d mask models to determine assist feature printing behavior. This correction is done while maintaining MRC constraints. In this flow, an AF placement field, generated from the pre-OPC target patterns, can be used to provide accurate guidance on how to move assist features to get the most benefit while keeping other constraints in mind. Using this method, a range of printability fixing strategies, guided by placement benefits, is available. We present data showing that the benefit of AF placements can be determined from optical parameters, on target (non-OPC) data, and that this method leads to beneficial yet compliant masks.

Double patterning technology (DPT) is one of the main options for printing critical layers at 32nm half-pitch and beyond. To enable DPT, a layout decomposition tool is first used to split the original design into two separate decomposed-design layouts. Each decomposed-design layout may then receive optical proximity correction (OPC) and RETs to produce a mask layout. The requirements for OPC to enable individual layer DPT patterning are generally the same as current single exposure OPC requirements, meaning that the success criteria will be similar to previous node specifications. However, there are several new challenges for OPC with DPT. These include large litho-etch biases, two sets of process variables associated with each patterning layer and the relative pattern placement between them. The order of patterning may be important as there may be process interactions between the two patterns especially at overlap regions. Corners which were rounded in single patterning layers may now become sharp, potentially increasing reliability concerns due to electromigration. In this study, we address many of these issues by proposing several new techniques that can be used in OPC with DPT. They are specifically designed for the Litho-Etch-Litho-Etch process, but some of the ideas may be extended to develop OPC methods for other DPT processes. We applied the new OPC method to several circuit and test patterns and demonstrated how OPC results were improved compared to regular OPC methods.

The ability to manage critical dimensions (CDs) of structures on IC devices is vital to improving product yield and performance. It is challenging to achieve accurate metrology data as the geometries shrink beyond 40 nm features. At this technology node CDSEM noise and resist LER are of significant concerns1. This paper examines the extendibility of scatterometry techniques to characterize structures that are close to limits of lithographic printing and to extract full profile information for 2D and 3D features for OPC model calibration2. The resist LER concerns are diminished because of the automatic averaging that scatterometry provides over the measurement pad; this represents a significant added value for proper OPC model calibration and verification. This work develops a comparison matrix to determine the impact of scatterometry data on OPC model calibration with conventional CDSEM measurements. The paper will report test results for the OPC model through process data for accuracy and predictability.

In advanced technology nodes, due to accuracy and computing time constraint, OPC has shifted from discrete simulation to pixel based simulation. The simulation is grid based and then interpolation occurs between grid points. Even if the sampling is done below Nyquist rate, interpolation can cause some variations for same polygon placed at different location in the layout. Any variation is rounded during OPC treatment, because of discrete numbers used in OPC output file. The end result is inconsistency in post-OPC layout, where the same input polygon will give different outputs, depending on its position and orientation relative to the grid. This can have a major impact in CD control, in structures like SRAM for example, where mismatching between gates can cause major issue. There are some workarounds to minimize this effect, but most of them are post-treatment fix. In this paper, we will try to identify and solve the root cause of the problem. We will study the relationship between the pixel size and the consistency of post OPC results. The pixel size is often set based on optical parameters, but it might be possible to optimize it around this value to avoid inconsistency. One can say that the optimization will highly depend on design and not be possible for a real layout. As the range of pitch used in a design tends to decrease, thanks to fix pitch layouts, we may optimize pixel size for a full layout.

Cost and complexity associated with OPC and masks are rapidly increasing to the point that they could limit technology scaling in the future. This paper focuses on demonstrating the advantages of regular design fabrics for OPC simplification to enable scaling and minimize costs for technologies currently in volume production. The application of such a simplified OPC flow results in much smaller mask data volumes due to significantly fewer edges compared to the conventional designs and OPC flows. Moreover, the proposed approach enables reduced mask write times, hence lower mask costs. We compare OPC performance and complexity on standard cell designs to that of layouts on a regular design fabric. We first demonstrate advantages and limitations within an industrial model-based OPC solution. Then, a simplified rulebased OPC solution is discussed for the Metal 1 layer. This simplified OPC solution demonstrates a 70X run time improvement and an order of magnitude reduction in both the output edge count per unit shape and shot count per unit shape while maintaining the printabalility advantages of regular design fabrics. The simplified OPC also demonstrates a 50% reduction in mask-write time. Finally, the benefit of regular design fabrics for OPC simplification and mask cost reduction at a 32nm node is discussed.

A precise lithographic model has always been a critical component for the technique of Optical Proximity Correction (OPC) since it was introduced a decade ago ^[1]. As semiconductor manufacturing moves to 32nm and 22nm technology nodes with 193nm wafer immersion lithography, the demand for more accurate models is unprecedented to predict complex imaging phenomena at high numerical aperture (NA) with aggressive illumination conditions necessary for these nodes. An OPC model may comprise all the physical processing components from mask e-beam writing steps to final CDSEM measurement of the feature dimensions. In order to provide a precise model, it is desired that every component involved in the processing physics be accurately modeled using minimum metrology data. In the past years, much attention has been paid to studying mask 3-D effects, mask writing limitations, laser spectrum profile, lens pupil polarization/apodization, source shape characterization, stage vibration, and so on. However, relatively fewer studies have been devoted to modeling of the development process of resist film though it is an essential processing step that cannot be neglected. Instead, threshold models are commonly used to approximate resist development behavior. While resist models capable of simulating development path are widely used in many commercial lithography simulators, the lack of this component in current OPC modeling lies in the fact that direct adoption of those development models into OPC modeling compromises its capability of full chip simulation. In this work, we have successfully incorporated a photoresist development model into production OPC modeling software without sacrificing its full chip capability. The resist film development behavior is simulated in the model to incorporate observed complex resist phenomena such as surface inhibition, developer mass transport, HMDS poisoning, development contrast, etc. The necessary parameters are calibrated using metrology data in the same way that current model calibration is done. The method is validated with a rigorous lithography process simulation tool which is based on physical models to simulate and predict effects during the resist PEB and development process. Furthermore, an experimental lithographic process was modeled using this new methodology, showing significant improvement in modeling accuracy in compassion to a traditional model. Layout correction test has shown that the new model form is equivalent to traditional model forms in terms of correction convergence and speed.

The pitch-splitting of patterns using the litho-etch-litho-etch double patterning technique (DPT) may be required at the 22nm node. By splitting the layout into 2 masks, DPT introduces some new potential failure mechanisms. These new failure mechanisms can occur if the layer decomposition and subsequent OPC fail to account for interlayer misalignment and corner rounding of the decomposed masks. This paper will suggest novel solutions which can be taken during the OPC step to account of interlayer misalignment and corner rounding at decomposed edges. These methods will be shown to produce improved process window and reduced sensitivity to misalignment compared to a conventional OPC without interlayer awareness.

A fast-CAD method for evaluating through-focus interaction among features is developed based on dual layout convolution kernels derived and tested for accuracy in predicting intensity changes. The model is derived by extending the Taylor series expansion for OPD to include a quadratic term, resulting in not only the usual pattern match factor Z₃ for defocus, but also match factors for Z₀ and Z₈. The model is tested through-focus on a logic layout and the predicted intensity change versus the actual intensity change through-focus is graphed. Results for basic case near coherent illumination show an R² of 0.92. Generalization to use only two patterns instead of three is shown to work well for line ends, with an R² of 0.96.

Mask AF (AF), both printable (PRAF) and non-printable - or sub-resolution - AF (SRAF) have been part of the established lithography and RET/OPC toolkit for achieving a manufacturable process window, for several technology generations. Deployment of AF onto a mask for a full product or test-chip layout has been traditionally rule-driven, i.e. based on look-up tables of critical feature sizes and corresponding AF, with specified dimensions and at specified distances. The number of AF per given layout main feature, the set of AF dimensions (widths, heights, etc.) and the distances (placements) from the main features are collectively referred to as the AF Rules Set. The identification of the optimal parameters values in an AF Rules Set (or the optimal AF Rules, for short) is a fundamental problem in process technology development for semiconductor manufacturing, which is typically being addressed by a mixture of heuristic parametric searches and lithographic simulations. This approach produces a limited number of usable AF rules (mainly for 1D layout configurations) and often results in insufficient coverage for 2D cases. This paper introduces a novel methodology for the determination of an optimal AF Rules set, which results in a greatly superior coverage of layout configurations (both 1D and 2D) and quantitatively verifiable larger common process window. The methodology utilizes an inverse lithography simulation step, followed by computational geometry analysis and filtering and finally automated rules extraction. The computational flow, which has been implemented for 22nm process development, delivers an order of magnitude more rules (i.e. from few tens to several hundred), and often generates non-intuitive 2D rules which could not have been discovered by heuristic search alone. The presented results illustrate the superior performance of this technique particularly in the case of contact and metal layers at 22nm. Potential extendibility of this approach for the 15nm node is also discussed.

As we proceed to 22 nm technology node without any advancement from the front of numerical aperture or EUV, it has become really challenging to come up with a robust solution to confront resolution and process window. At this stage along with litho friendly design and new advent in lithographic processes, it has become vital to acquire highly optimized resolution enhancement technology (RET). In this paper, we review different realm of illumination optimization techniques with combination of currently available source shapes along with pixilated source optimization. Different source shapes are tested over various technology designs such as 32 nm and 22 nm designs for better fidelity and process window. We optimize different source shapes manually and also evaluate fidelity with optimized pixilated source. The results demonstrate how we can achieve better resolution for some layout patterns with different illumination optimization methods.

Near-field interference lithography is a promising variant of multiple patterning in semiconductor device fabrication that can potentially extend lithographic resolution beyond the current materials-based restrictions on the Rayleigh resolution of projection systems. With H₂O as the immersion medium, non-evanescent propagation and optical design margins limit achievable pitch to approximately 0.53λ/nH₂O = 0.37λ. Non-evanescent images are constrained only by the comparatively large resist indices (typically1.7) to a pitch resolution of 0.5/nresist (typically 0.29). Near-field patterning can potentially exploit evanescent waves and thus achieve higher spatial resolutions. Customized near-field images can be achieved through the modulation of an incoming wavefront by what is essentially an in-situ hologram that has been formed in an upper layer during an initial patterned exposure. Contrast Enhancement Layer (CEL) techniques and Talbot near-field interferometry can be considered special cases of this approach. Since the technique relies on near-field interference effects to produce the required pattern on the resist, the shape of the grating and the design of the film stack play a significant role on the outcome. As a result, it is necessary to resort to full diffraction computations to properly simulate and optimize this process. The next logical advance for this technology is to systematically design the hologram and the incident wavefront which is generated from a reduction mask. This task is naturally posed as an optimization problem, where the goal is to find the set of geometric and incident wavefront parameters that yields the closest fit to a desired pattern in the resist. As the pattern becomes more complex, the number of design parameters grows, and the computational problem becomes intractable (particularly in three-dimensions) without the use of advanced numerical techniques. To treat this problem effectively, specialized numerical methods have been developed. First, gradient-based optimization techniques are used to accelerate convergence to an optimal design. To compute derivatives of the parameters, an adjoint-based method was developed. Using the adjoint technique, only two electromagnetic problems need to be solved per iteration to evaluate the cost function and all the components of the gradient vector, independent of the number of parameters in the design.

We have designed the lithography process for 28nm node logic devices using 1.35NA scanner. In the 28nm node, we face on the ultra-low k1 lithography in which dense pattern is affected by the mask topography effect and the oblique-incidence. Using the rigorous lithography simulation considering the electro-magnetic field, we have estimated accurately the feasibility of resolution of the minimum pitch required in 28nm node. The optimum mask plate and illumination conditions have been decided by simulation. The experimental results for 28nm node show that the minimum pitch patterns and minimum SRAM cell are clearly resolved by single exposure.

ArF immersion lithography has reached mass production stage for 55-40 nm node devices. Especially, defectivity performance at wafer edge in immersion lithography has been recently discussed in detail, because its controllability is a key factor to obtain high yield. We have already reported that defectivity was strongly affected by the wafer edge shape and long edge wafer showed better defectivity performance than short one. We also found remaining flakes or particles at wafer edge after coating were easy to be peeled off on short edge wafer during exposure and these peeled flakes or particles were most suspected candidate which induces bridging defects. Therefore it is important to prevent generating such peeled flakes or particles for good defectivity in immersion lithography. In this paper, we will show the defectivity results of various kinds of wafers which have different wafer edge shapes (long,short and full-round) and diameters to investigate the effect of wafer edge geometry on defectivity performance in detail. Furthermore, we investigated the relation of an edge removal method and the defectivity with referring bevel inspection results at each coating step. We confirmed that the modified edge removal method well improved the defectivity performance. We will discuss them based on the latest data and propose the most suitable technique to remove the wafer edge particles before immersion exposure.

Liquid immersion lithography tools with NA=1.3 are being applied for hp4x node device and beyond. As the typical DOF has been reduced to 100 nm or less for this hyper-NA exposure, precise consideration of the error factors that lead to DOF reduction is required. The BFD (Best Focus Difference between pattern kinds) induced by resist stack is one of the error factors yet to be solved. In this work, the BFD induced by resist stack was studied through simulation and experiment by decomposing it into the following three components: One induced by the "refraction" effect, one induced by the "reflection" effect and one induced by the "process" effect. Each BFD was evaluated by simulation to make a BFD budget. Experimental verification was also performed, which confirmed BFD of 25 nm and it was found that over 30 % of the observed BFD was induced owing to resist stack. Based on this result, we discuss a method for controlling the BFD by utilizing projection lens aberration and review the design flow of resist stacks with antireflection coatings.

For 32 nm half-pitch node, double patterning is recognized as the most promising technology since some significant obstacles still remain in EUV in terms of technology and cost. This means much higher productivity and overlay performance will be required for lithography tools. This paper shows the technical features of Nikon's new immersion tool, NSR-S620 based on newly developed platform "Streamlign^TM" designed for 2nm overlay, 200wph throughput and 2week setup time. The S620 is built basically upon Nikon's Tandem Stage and Local Fill Nozzle technology, but has several additional features. For excellent overlay, laser encoders with short optical path are applied for wafer stage measurement in addition to interferometers. By using this hybrid metrology, the non-linearity of the encoder scale can be easily calibrated, while eliminating the air fluctuation error of interferometer. For high throughput, a method with a new alignment microscope system and a new auto focus mapping, called Stream Alignment is introduced. It makes it possible to reduce the overhead time between the exposures remarkably. The target productivity is 4,000 wafer outs per day. Accuracy is also improved because many more alignment points and a continuous wafer height map without stitching are available. Higher acceleration and faster scan velocity of the stages are also achieved by optimal vibration dynamics design and new control system. The main body, including the projection lens, is isolated by Sky Hook Technology used already on the NSR-SF150 and SF155 steppers, and also the reticle stage is mechanically isolated from the main body. With this new platform, the imaging performance can be maximized.

In addition to hardware performance enhancement of exposure tool, new functions are needed to be developed to meet the required performance for realizing double patterning. New functions to improve overlay accuracy are advanced distortion control and stage control. We have developed a real-time lens magnification control system to enhance distortion control, which can make peel type, barrel type and trapezoid type of distortion shape, resulting in improving intra-shot overlay accuracy. Wafer stage grid control function can compensate for shot shift, shot rotation and magnification for each single shot, realizing drastic advancement in overlay accuracy. As for CD performance improvement, dose optimization is effective to compenste for CD uniformity according to CD metrology data from processed wafers. On the other hand, process window enhancement is performed by optimizing illumination mode with Canon's solution software k1 TUNE. In this paper, we will introduce these new functions.

Immersion lithography started to become the main workhorse for volume production of 45-nm devices, and while waiting for EUV lithography, immersion will continue to be the main technology for further shrinks. In a first step single exposure can be stretched towards the 0.25 k1 limit, after which various double patterning methods are lining up to print 32-nm and even 22-nm devices. The immersion exposure system plays a key role here, and continuous improvement steps are required to support tighter CD and overlay budgets. Additionally cost of ownership (COO) needs to be reduced and one important way to achieve this is to increase the wafer productivity. In this paper we discuss the design and performance of a new improved immersion exposure system XT:1950i. This system will extend immersion towards 38-nm half pitch resolution using a 1.35 NA lens and extreme off axis illumination (e.g. dipole). The system improvements result in better CDU, more accurate overlay towards 4-nm and higher wafer productivity towards 148- wph. Last but not least a next step in immersion technology is implemented. A novel immersion hood is introduced giving more robust low and stable defects performance.

Wavefront aberrations of the projection optics induce unignorable focus and overlay errors dependent on the shape of the device pattern and illumination settings. Thus, the 32nm node and the subsequent double patterning lithographic generation require ever more stringent control of aberrations. For the most recent exposure tools with polarized illumination and high throughput capabilities in particular, due attention needs to be paid to the influences of aberrations caused by polarization and exposure load. A system for measuring and correcting polarization aberrations and lens heating aberrations has been developed, and its technical details and application examples are presented in this paper. Furthermore, improvement in aberration control on the next generation exposure tool compatible with double patterning is stated as well.

High NA imaging or/and polarization illumination imaging for exposure tool requires not only scalar aberration performance but also vectorial aberration (so called polarization aberration) control. There are several methods to explain vectorial aberrations such as, Jones Matrix Pupil, Pauli spin matrix, etc. Pauli spin matrix may be intuitively easier to understand and suitable to show scalar wavefront. However, direct use of Pauli spin matrix method may not express physical meaning of vectorial aberration exactly, especially when the amount of polarization aberration is large. In this paper we would like to propose a new explanation method, which is natural expansion of scalar aberration explanation to vectorial aberration explanation and physically mostly exact form. Furthermore useful approximation of the form makes it possible to make vectorial aberration sum-operant from productoperant. Using this method, it is possible to use scalar aberration control technique, such as wavefront control, Zernike sensitivity analysis, Zernike linear combination method, etc. to vectorial aberration control.

With the push toward 32 nm half-pitch, OPC models will need to account for a wider range of sources of imaging variability in order to meet the CD budget requirements. The effects of chromatic aberration on imaging have been a recent area of interest but little work has been done to include this effect in OPC models. Chromatic aberrations in the optical system give rise to a blurring of the intensity distribution in the imaging plane even for highly line-narrowed immersion laser sources. The resulting focus blur can introduce a feature-dependent CD bias of several nanometers. Usually, the empirical components of the resist model can reduce or completely compensate for this imaging effect. However, it is not well known if including a more physical image model over a large range of laser bandwidth conditions will improve the OPC accuracy or process-variability robustness. This study demonstrates the correlation of physical laser bandwidth perturbations with perturbations of the optical model in Calibre. The laser bandwidth is experimentally perturbed to obtain several sets of CD measurements for different bandwidths. These are then used in model calibration with the corresponding perturbation in the optical model. Finally, we quantify the improvement in model accuracy obtained when including an input of laser bandwidth.

Volume device manufacturing using immersion lithography is widely accepted as the solution for patterning IC features below 40 nm half pitch. In order to ensure high yield and steady productivity tight control of defectivity is essential. A major source of defects and tool contamination is the particles introduced by incoming wafers. Particles can be categorized in two groups: particles attached to wafer surface or residues on the wafer edge. Surface or edge peeling of topcoats can also be a source of particle. Adhesion force between topcoat or topcoat-less (TC-less) resist and wafer is one of the most important parameter for particle reduction. Peeling test results proved that TC-less resist has better adhesion performance than topcoat. One of the most commonly used adhesion promoting material is hexamethyldisilazane (HMDS). Application condition of this material is an important factor in preventing wafer edge and surface topcoat peeling. Studies have shown lower temperature and longer application of HMDS shows better adhesion result. Maintaining a clean wafer surface is also a very important factor for particle reduction. Pre-rinse, which can rinse off particles before exposure, was evaluated and the efficiency was confirmed. Edge particles are more effectively reduced by pre-rinse, because weakly attached topcoat and wafer edge residues were effectively removed by pre-rinse. For further particle reduction, edge residue reduction and cut line roughness improvement were evaluated and their effectiveness was confirmed. Lower cut position achieved improved particle counts on both topcoat and TC-less resist; more frequent contact between water and cut-line can weaken the adhesion and consequently peel off topcoat or TC-less resist. Finally the relationship between defectivity and hydrophobicity is analyzed, high Receding Contact Angle (RCA) showed better defectivity result. Topcoat and TC-less process is compared for each defectivity reduction methodology and for each category TC-less process always showed lower defectivity level and less sensitivity to process conditions, indicating that TC-less process is safer and more robust than topcoat process.

The practical limit of NA using water as immersion liquid has been reached. As a consequence, the k1 in production for the coming technology nodes will decrease rapidly, even below k1=0.25.This means that new imaging solutions are required. Double patterning and spacer techniques in combination with design for manufacturing are developed to support the 22nm node. However, from an imaging point of view the main challenge is to extend and improve single exposures at k1 of 0.26 to 0.31. In this paper we will present ingredients to support single exposure (as a part of a double patterning solution). The following ingredients to extend single exposure are presented in this paper: 1) Extreme Dipole illumination (pole width = 20° and ring width = 0.08σ) to demonstrate tight CD control of 1.5nm across the wafer for a flash gate layer with a half pitch of 38nm. 2) The benefits of complex freeform illumination pupils for process window, pattern fidelity and MEEF using a DRAM active area pattern, and 3) the advantage of TE polarization for rotated structures while maintaining intensity in preferred polarization state.

In recent years the topic of speckle in optical projection microlithography received increasing interest because of its potential contribution to line width roughness (LWR). Speckle is a light interference effect that causes the dose delivered to the reticle to be not uniform. This will cause a line width variation of the patterns imaged in the resist. The contrast of the speckle pattern is shown to be caused by a combination of temporal and spatial coherence effects of the light. The temporal part, determined by the bandwidth of the laser light and the duration of the laser pulse, is found to be the dominant contributor to speckle in today's ArF optical lithography. The spatial distribution of the speckle pattern depends on the intensity distribution of the light in the pupil. Consequently the spatial frequencies of the LWR induced by speckle will depend on the illumination condition, which is confirmed experimentally by exposing wafers with different amounts of speckle contrast. The experiments demonstrate that the amplitude of the LWR induced by speckle is consistent with theory and simulations. Its amplitude is small compared to other sources of LWR, but it is clearly present and should not be ignored when extending ArF optical lithography into future technology nodes.

The lithography roadmap demands overlay reduction along with increased productivity. New applications are proposed as lithography solution for the 32-nm node and possibly beyond. Most of them require very tight overlay and multiple exposures. Major contributors in the overlay budget are coming from the exposure system, like thermal stability, lens aberrations stability, stage positioning and alignment. An additional complexity is the interaction with the actual process and the pattern on the reticle. To keep the lithography roadmap affordable, the cost per wafer needs to be tamed by boosting the productivity of the exposure tool. To enable new applications in a production environment a new generation lithographic exposure tools was developed, with improved overlay and increased productivity. The optical column contains an improved 1.35 NA immersion lens. Compared to the former generation the combination of overlay and productivity requirements are met by a high acceleration wafer stage along with a new stage position measurement system, introducing new technologies paving the way to meet the future roadmap requirements. The increased disturbances caused by the higher accelerations are countered by a short-beam interferometer system thus ensuring optimal positioning performance. Further productivity enhancements are reached by reducing non-exposure time. The latest performance results will be presented; this will include overlay results as well as other critical system performance data.

Determination of the optimal double patterning scheme depends on cost, integration complexity, and performance. This paper will compare the overall CDU performance of litho-etch-litho-etch (LELE) versus a spacer approach. The authors use Monte Carlo simulation as a way to rigorously account for the effect of each contributor to the overall CD variation of the double patterning process. Monte Carlo simulation has been applied to determine CD variations in previous studies^1-2, but this paper will extend the methodology into double patterning using a calibrated resist model with topography.

In this work, a framework for the assessment of different double exposure techniques is laid out. Both the simulation environment and the utilized models, derived from well-established resist models, are discussed. Numerous simulation results are evaluated to investigate strengths and weaknesses of different double exposure approaches. Non-linear superposition techniques are examined in respect of their process performance for both standard and sub 0.25 k₁ values. In addition to a study of these effects in the scope of basic layouts, an application to interference-assisted lithography (IAL) is proposed and discussed.

Double patterning (DP) is today the accepted solution to extend immersion lithography to the 32 nm node and beyond. Pitch splitting process and spacer process have been developed at CEA-LETI-Minatec. This paper will focus on the optimization of dry etching process to achieve these two patterning techniques. For each approach, we first discuss the choices of the starting integration flows based on the requirements to etch the final devices. Then, we develop how the etching steps were optimized to get a good step by step CD control for 45nm/45nm features.

The three knobs of optical lithography, namely process factor k1, wavelength (λ) and numerical aperture (NA) have been constantly pushed to print smaller features. To get an equivalent k1 value below the fundamental limit of 0.25, double patterning (DP) has recently emerged as a viable solution for the 32nm lithography node. Various DP techniques exist such as litho-etch-litho-etch (LELE), litho-freeze-litho-freeze (LFLF) and self-aligned sidewall spacer. In this paper, the potential of higher order pitch division (pitch/N, N>2) for sub-32nm lithography is analyzed. Compared to double patterning, higher order pitch division lithography offers higher resolution but also faces significant challenges such as added cost and tighter process control. Several process schemes are proposed and compared in terms of complexity, susceptibility to alignment error and CD uniformity control. It is shown that the overlay budget does not necessarily decrease compared to double patterning. The main challenge in higher order pitch division comes from controlling the key processing steps that directly form lines or spaces. In addition, line CD control is easier than space (gap) control in all four "positive-tone" processes studied, similar to the double patterning case. Among the proposed processes, a freezing assisted double spacer (FADS) process that is simpler than the common sidewall spacer approach shows promise for balanced process control.

According to the ITRS roadmap, DRAM half pitch (hp) will reach to 32 and 20 nm in 2012 and 2017 respectively. However, it is difficult to make sub-40 nm node by single exposure technology with currently available 1.35 numerical aperture (NA) ArF immersion lithography. Although it is expected to enable 32 nm hp with either double patterning technology or extreme ultra-violet lithography, there are many problems to be solved with cost reduction. Thus, the study of high-index fluid immersion technology should be pursued simultaneously. ArF water immersion systems with 1.35 NA have already introduced for 40 nm hp production. ArF immersion lithography using high-index materials is being researched for the next generation lithography. Currently, many studies are undergoing in order to increase NA with higher index fluid and lens in immersion technology. The combination of LuAG (n=2.14) and third-generation fluid could be used to make 1.55 NA. This combination with 0.25 k₁, 32 nm hp can be obtained by single exposure technology. In order to check the realization of this process and to check the possible process hurdles for this high NA single exposure technology, 32 nm hp with 1:1 line and space patterning is tried. Various illumination conditions are tried to make 1:1 32 nm hp and the exposure and develop conditions are varied to check whether this single exposure can give processible window. As a result, 32 nm hp can be obtained by single exposure technology with 1.55 NA.

For several years, SEMATECH has invested significant effort into extending 193 nm immersion lithography by developing a set of high index materials. For high index immersion lithography (HIL) to enable 1.70NA imaging, a high index lens element with an absorbance < 0.005/cm, a fluid with an index of ≥ 1.80, and a resist with an index >1.9 are needed. This paper reviews the success or failure of various HIL components and presents the top final material prospects and properties in each category. Since this abstract was submitted, the industry has decided to cease any effort in HIL, not because of fundamental showstoppers but because of timing. This choice was made even though the only currently available technology the can enable 32 nm and 22 nm manufacturing is double patterning. This may represent a paradigm shift for the semiconductor industry and lithography. It may very well be that using lithography as the main driver for scaling is now past. Due to economic forces in the industry, opportunity costs will force performance scaling using alternative technology.

We discuss the birefringence issues associated with use of crystalline sapphire, with uniaxial crystal structure, as a last lens element for high-index 193 nm immersion lithography. Sapphire is a credible high-index lens material candidate because with appropriate orientation and TE polarization the ordinary ray exhibits the required isotropic optical properties. Also, its material properties may give it higher potential to meet the stringent optical requirements compared to the potential of the principal candidate materials, cubic-symmetry LuAG and ceramic spinel. The TE polarization restriction is required anyway for hyper-NA imaging, due to TM-polarization contrast degradation effects. Further, the high uniaxial-structure birefringence of sapphire may offer the advantage that any residual TM polarization results in a relatively-uniform flare instead of contrast degradation. One issue with this concept is that spatial-dispersion-induced effects should cause some index anisotropy of the ordinary rays, in a way similar to the intrinsic birefringence (IBR) effects in cubic crystals, except that there is no ray splitting. We present the theory of this effect for the trigonal crystal structure of sapphire and discuss its implications for lithography optics. For this material the spatial-dispersion-induced effects are characterized by eight material parameters, of which three contribute to index anisotropy of the ordinary rays. Only one gives rise to azimuthal distortions, and may present challenges for correction. To assess the consequences of using sapphire as a last element, neglecting any IBR effects, we use lithography simulations to characterize the lithographic performance for a 1.7 NA design, and compare to that for LuAG.

Tight control of intra-field CD variations becomes more and more important as the pattern sizes on wafer shrink. For intra-field CD uniformity improvement several techniques have been developed. A very effective method is changing the local mask blank transmittance according to measured Intra Field (IF) CD variations using Pixer's CDC^TM technique. This process is irreversible. For various practical reasons it would be helpful to have the opportunity for a second or more mask blank treatments. A first application could be to improve an unsatisfying CDU post first treatment. A second application can be the switch of the mask usage to another tool group. Furthermore, the opportunity to use multiple CDC treatments would allow the splitting of the correction process for the mask and the tool separately, whereas in a first correction only the mask CDU errors will be corrected and after the mask is supplied to the customer another correction may be required to reduce the exposure tool contributions to the CDU budget. Therefore the intention of the paper is to evaluate the opportunities of a Multiple CDC (MCDC) correction process, to determine its accuracy and the corresponding limits. To do this two CDC tool projection lenses have been characterized, which have been developed for different focus positions. We will characterize their transmittance transfer performance, stability and sensitivities. The required multiple layer distances will be determined. The linearity of the multiple CDC treatment will be analyzed using AIMS^TM measurements and wafer prints. We will present results of successful multiple CDC corrections for production masks.

As integrated circuit technology advances and features shrink, the scale of critical dimension (CD) variations induced by lithography effects become comparable with the critical dimension of the design itself. At the same time, each technology node requires tighter margins for errors introduced in the lithography process. Optical and process models -- the black boxes that simulate the pattern transfer onto silicon -- are becoming more and more concerned with those different process errors. As a consequence, an optical proximity correction (OPC) model consists mainly of two parts; a physical part dealing with the physics of light and its behavior through the lithographical patterning process, and an empirical part to account for any process errors that might be introduced between writing the mask and sampling measurements of patterns on wafer. Understanding how such errors can affect a model's stability and predictability, and taking such errors into consideration while building a model, could actually help convergence, stability, and predictability of the model when it comes to design patterns other than those used during model calibration and verification. This paper explores one method to quickly enhance model accuracy and stability.

Simulation was used to explore boundary layer models for 1D and 2D patterns that would be appropriate for fast CAD modeling of physical effects during design. FDTD simulation was used to compare rigorous thick mask modeling to a thin mask approximation (TMA). When features are large, edges can be viewed as independent and modeled as separate from one another, but for small mask features, edges experience cross-talk. For attenuating phase-shift masks, interaction distances as large as 150nm were observed. Polarization effects are important for accurate EMF models. Due to polarization effects, the edge perturbations in line ends become different compared to a perpendicular edge. For a mask designed to be real, the 90o transmission created at edges produces an asymmetry through focus, which is also polarization dependent. Thick mask fields are calculated using TEMPEST and Panoramic Technologies software. Fields are then analyzed in the near field and on wafer CDs to examine deviations from TMA.

Now it comes to the sub 65nm technology node, which should be the first generation of the immersion microlithography. And the brand-new lithography tool makes many optical effects, which can be ignored at 90nm and 65nm nodes, now have significant impact on the pattern transmission process from design to silicon. And this will result in big challenge to the optical proximity effect correction. For, with the shrinkage of the critical dimension of IC design, the error budget for the CD variation becomes much tighter. And to meet the requirement of the tight CD control, more optical effects need to be taken into account while using some calibrated process model to represent the real lithography process. In the whole industry, it is thought that, instead of sparse optical proximity correction, grid based model for optical proximity correction should be started to employ for sub 65nm technology node. Considering that sparse model and grid-based model adopting different algorithm, OPC engineers sometimes maybe need to do some translation work between the two kinds of model forms. This paper will demonstrate a procedure for the model form translation purpose.

This work compared the CD-based and image-assistant approaches for calibrating the OPC models. OPC models were first developed for 65nm-node memory contact layer and calibrated by contact test patterns with various ellipticities. The image-assistant model is a hybrid one calibrated by SEM contours and 1D measurement results, while the CD-based model calibration uses 1D measurement results as the sole data source. The fitting errors, model prediction ability and OPCed results were compared between these two models. Besides, the challenges on calibrating the edge-detection algorithm of the CD SEM images to the extracted contours of OPC tool were also discussed. Finally, the layouts corrected by CD-based and image-assistant models were written on a test mask for wafer-level comparison. The results displayed that the CD-based model showed smaller error on fitting and interpolation, but image-assistant model got improvement on extrapolation prediction of array-edge contact, unknown contact pattern and long contacts. The wafer-level comparison also revealed the image-assistant model outperformed to the CD-based model by smaller correction error on unexpected patterns.

In the modern photolithography process for manufacturing integrated circuits, geometry dimensions need to be realized on silicon which are much smaller than the exposure wavelength. Thus Resolution Enhancement Techniques have an indispensable role towards the implementation of a successful technology process node. Finding an appropriate RET recipe, that answers the needs of a certain fabrication process, usually involves intensive computational simulations. These simulations have to reflect how different elements in the lithography process under study will behave. In order to achieve this, accurate models are needed that truly represent the transmission of patterns from mask to silicon. A common practice in calibrating lithography models is to collect data for the dimensions of some test structures created on the exposure mask along with the corresponding dimensions of these test structures on silicon after exposure. This data is used to tune the models for good predictions. The models will be guaranteed to accurately predict the test structures that has been used in its tuning. However, real designs might have a much greater variety of structures that might not have been included in the test structures. This paper explores a method for compiling the test structures to be used in the model calibration process using design layouts as an input. The method relies on reducing structures in the design layout to the essential unique structure from the lithography models point of view, and thus ensuring that the test structures represent what the model would actually have to predict during the simulations.

In the past several years, DFM (design for manufacturability) is widely used in semiconductor process. DFM is to make layout design optimized for manufacturability's sake. Lithography friendly design (LFD) is one branch of DFM. To enhance process margin of photolithography, layout designers typically modify their layout design with the application of DFM or LFD tools. Despites those application, it is still not enough to realize enough process window as technology node goes to beyond 45nm. For these reasons, OPC (Optical proximity correction) engineers apply additional layout treatment prior to applying OPC. That is called as table-driven retarget, which is typically conducted by rule-based table. Similar to rule-based OPC, table-driven retarget also has limitations in its application. In this paper, we presented a model-based retargeting method to overcome the limitation of table-driven retarget. Once the criteria of process window has been set, we let OPC tool simulate the process window of each layout of design firstly. Then, if the output value of the simulated result cannot meet the preset criteria, OPC tool resizes the layout dimension automatically. OPC tool will do retarget-OPC-retarget iterations until process windows of all of designs become within the criteria. After all, the model-based retarget can guarantee accurate retarget and avoid over or under retarget in order to improve process window of full chip design.

Generating test patterns with sufficient parameter space coverage has always been one of the critical steps towards building good OPC models. The advancement in technology node requires continues updates to OPC modeling test patterns. The traditional approach relies heavily on experiences gathered from older technology nodes. It often requires rounds of costly test tape out. Here we propose an automated flow for test pattern generation utilizing a fast full chip pattern matching algorithm. We describe the implementation of the flow. We also present experimental results and discuss the benefit and challenges of the proposed flow.

The extension of optical lithography at 193nm wavelength to the 32nm node and beyond drives advanced resolution enhancement techniques that impose even tighter tolerance requirements on wafer lithography and etch as well as on mask manufacturing. The presence of residual errors in photomasks and the limitations of capturing those in process models for the wafer lithography have triggered development work for separately describing and correcting mask manufacturing effects. Long range effects - uniformity and pattern loading driven - and short range effects - proximity and linearity - contribute to the observed signatures. The dominating source of the short range errors is the etch process and hence it was captured with a variable etch bias model in the past [1]. The paper will discuss limitations and possible extensions to the approach for improved accuracy. The insertion of mask process correction into a post tapeout flow imposes strict requirements for runtime and data integrity. The paper describes a comprehensive approach for mask process correction including calibration and model building, model verification, mask data correction and mask data verification. Experimental data on runtime performance is presented. Flow scenarios as well as other applications of mask process correction for gaining operational efficiency in both tapeout and mask manufacturing are discussed.

During the past few years, new technology brought about new problems we face today due to shrinkage of the feature size. Some of the problems such as Mask Error Enhancement Factor (MEEF), overlay control, and so on are crucial because large MEEF can make it difficult to satisfy CD target, and bring about large CD variation. Moreover, it can also lead to degraded CD uniformity which would have an undesired influence on device properties. Recently, 2-D random contact hole is getting crucial because it normally has very large MEEF and cause asymmetric proximity effect which can cause large CD variation, and misalignment of layer-to-layer. In other words, the method of optical proximity correction and building accurate OPC model for 2-D random contact hole pattern could be key factor obtaining better CD uniformity with enhanced overlay margin. Furthermore, in order to get very tangible performance, design based metrology system (DBM) is used to evaluate process performance. Design based metrology systems are able to extract information of whole chip CD variation. On top of that, OPC abnormality can be identified and design feedback can be also disclosed. In this paper, we will investigate novel method for sub 45nm 2-D random contact hole printing. First, optical proximity effect (OPE) for two dimensional layout will be investigated. Second, the results of Variable Threshold Modeling (VTM) for various slit contact hole patterns will be analyzed. Third, model based verification will be done and analyzed through full-chip before creating full-chip mask. Finally, sub 45nm 2-D random contact hole printing performance will be presented by DBM.

In the year of 1873, Professor E. Abbe, cooperating with Carl Zeiss Inc, summarized his discovery of the microscope imaging principle which states that the final image is the superposition result of all the diffracted images entering at different angles oblique to the pupil. This discovery forms the foundation analytical methods to analyze optics resolving power. Later, in 1951, the Hopkin's equations, derived by Professor H. H Hopkins, clarified the correlation relationship in the image from both spatial and frequency domain. Based on Hopkin's theory, many microlithography aerial image simulation tools have been developed. In this paper, we claimed that by combing Abbe's theory with the Principle Component Analysis (PCA) method, which is specific to the covariance eigen-decomposition method rather than the SVD (Singular Value Decomposition) method, we can achieve an extremely efficient computational algorithm to generate the essential kernels for aerial image simulation. The major reason for this speed up is from our discovery that the covariance matrix of Abbe's kernels, which is in the dimension of number of discretized condenser sources, can be easily constructed analytically as well as decomposed to a basis set. As a result, an analytical form of compact decorrelated Abbe's kernels can be obtained even without explicit formation of the kernel images. Furthermore, the asymptotic eigenvalues and eigenvectors of the covariance matrix can also be obtained without much computational effort. This discovery also creates a new way to analyze the relationship between sources and final images which can be easily utilized to optimize source shape for lithography process development. Several imaging phenomenon have been readily explained by this method. Extensive experimental results demonstrate that Abbe-PCA is 10X- 40X faster than the state-of-the-art algorithm Abbe-SVD.

Sub-resolution assist features (SRAFs) are a common addition to low-k1 masks to improve process window for isolated features. Traditional SRAF placement, which has been widely adopted by the industry, is governed by generation of rules which have been experimentally derived based on exposure and measurement of test patterns. The placement rules must generate SRAFs large enough to improve the process window, but small enough not to print at any point within that process window. This has resulted in tremendous challenges to meet the cost and process window requirements for the advanced technology nodes. Specifically, in the logic products, due to the complex two-dimensional patterns, the placement rules will be quite challenging in order to ensure maximum sizing and no printing. SRAF generation is also plagued by over clean-up due to mask rule checks (MRC) specified. The challenge is to derive the best rules which generate SRAFs without printing through the process window. This paper will explore the possibility of an alternate SRAF placement methodology where the SRAF placement rules can be greatly simplified, and SRAF printability through the required process window conditions will automatically be accounted for during a subsequent Optical Proximity Correction (OPC) step. This methodology has the advantages of simplifying the placement rules while simultaneously ensuring maximum possible SRAF size with no printing within the process window. The SRAF size optimization is performed concurrently with OPC thereby saving valuable time on trying to optimize the rule deck. In this method the side-lobes are automatically suppressed well under the imaging threshold. Experimental verification of the SRAF dependence on its sizing and placement along with printability and main-feature process window will be demonstrated.

It is believed that smaller correction segments could achieve better pattern fidelity, however, some unstable OPC results which are beyond the capability of common OPC correction schemes were found once the segment length is less than a certain threshold. The dilemma between offering more degree-of-freedom by decreasing the correction segment length at the cost of longer correction time and the instability induced by the reduced segment length challenges every OPC engineer. In this paper, 2 indices are introduced; the segmentation index is proposed to determine a reasonable minimum segment length while the stability index can be used to examine whether the correction system is a stiff convergence problem. A compromised correction algorithm is also proposed to consider the OPC accuracy, stability and runtime simultaneously. The correction results and the runtime are analyzed.

With each new technology node there is an increase in the number of layers requiring Optical Proximity Correction (OPC) and verification. This increases the time spent on the mask tapeout flow which is already a lengthy portion of the production flow. New technology nodes not only have additional layers that require OPC but most critical layers also end up with more complex OPC requirements relative to previous generations slowing the tapeout flow even further. In an effort to maintain acceptable turnaround time (TAT) more hardware resources are added at each node and electronic design automation (EDA) suppliers are pushed to improve the software performance. The more we can parallelize operations within the tapeout flow the more efficient we can be with the use of the CPU resources and drive down the overall TAT. Traditional flows go through several cycles where data is broken up into templates, the templates are distributed to compute farms for processing, pieced back together, and sometimes written to disk before starting the next operation in the tapeout flow. During each of these cycles there are ramp up, ramp down, and input/output (I/O) times that are incurred affecting the efficient use of hardware resources. This paper will explore the advantages of pipelining the templates from one operation to the next in order to minimize these effects.

In microelectronics manufacturing, photolithography is the art of transferring pattern shapes printed on a mask to silicon wafers by the use of special imaging systems. These imaging systems stopped reducing exposure wavelength at 193nm. However, the industry demand for tighter design shapes and smaller structures on wafer has not stopped. To overcome some of the restrictions associated with the photographic process, new methods for Resolution Enhancement Techniques (RET) are being constantly explored and applied. An essential step in any RET method is Optical Proximity Correction (OPC). In this process the edges of the target desired shapes are manipulated to compensate for light diffraction effects and result in shapes on wafer as close as possible to the desired shapes. Manipulation of the shapes is always restricted by Mask Rules Checks (MRCs). The MRCs are the rules that assure that the pattern coming out of OPC can be printed on the mask without any catastrophic faults. Essential as they are, MRCs also place constrains on the solutions explored by the OPC algorithms. In this paper, an automated algorithm has been implemented to overcome MRC limitations to RET by decomposing the original layout at the places where regular RET hit the MRC during OPC.This algorithm has been applied to test cases where simulation results showed much better printability than the normal conventional solutions. This solution has also been tested and verified on silicon.

Bottom Anti Reflective Coating (BARC) materials are generally used to minimize reflection of incident light from the substrate (R_sub). As IC manufactures move to high NA systems to meet the patterning requirements for next generation technology as well as the use of new lower dielectric constant materials in the back-end-of-line dielectric, the requirements for developing BARC materials with new properties such as faster strip rate and properly tuned optical properties (n = refractive index and k=extinction coefficient) are essential. Some photoresist patterning schemes may also require a dual BARC system such as tri-layer patterning (TLP), which is undergoing extensive evaluation in academia and industries. This work focuses on Honeywell's next generation DUO193 material (DUO193FS), which is a siloxane-based polymer with an organic 193 nm chromophore attached to it. The effects of additives for adjusting strip rate in a wet chemical stripper, while maintaining chemical resistance to a photoresist developer, 2.38% TMAH in water are discussed. Different spectroscopic studies are performed to elucidate the mechanism of faster strip rate. Solvation of silanol groups and their orientation in the presence of additives are found to be secondary mechanism. The primary reason for enhanced strip rate is attributed to the addition of additives A and B, which lower bulk density of the solid film. DUO193FS can be stand alone BARC or used with another BARC as part of a dual BARC system to further minimize R_sub, maintaining resistance to 2.38% TMAH, planarizing any underlying topography and keeping the final film strip rate high.

This paper presents robust trilayer lithography technology for cutting-edge IC fabrication and double-patterning applications. The goal is to reduce the thickness of a silicon hardmask so that the minimum thickness of the photoresist is not limited by the etch budget and can be optimized for lithography performance. Successful results of pattern etching through a 300-nm carbon layer are presented to prove that a 13.5-nm silicon hardmask is thick enough to transfer the line pattern. Another highlight of this work is the use of a simulation tool to design the stack so that UV light is concentrated at the bottom of the trenches. This design helps to clear the resist in the trenches and prevent resist top loss. An experiment was designed to validate the assumption with 45-nm dense lines at various exposure doses, using an Exitech MS-193i immersion microstepper (NA = 1.3) at the SEMATECH Resist Test Center. Results show that such a stack design obtains very wide CD processing window and is robust for 1:3 line patterning at the diffraction limit, as well as for patterning small contact holes.

We report on the continuing development of a grayscale lithography technique based on the use of a polymeric grayscale photomask. Arbitrary three-dimensional (3D) microstructures can be realized in positive and negative photoresist materials by the use of the polymeric grayscale photomask with standard ultra-violet (UV) lithography. The fabrication of such 3D structures depends on the differential absorption of in photo-absorbing material. The photomask is made of patterned polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) polymer doped with a UV absorbing laser dye. The PDMS photomask contains micro-patterns made by micro-molding the PDMS on a complementary silicon master mold. By adjusting the thickness of the patterns on the polymer photomask, the dopant dye concentration in the photomask and UV exposure dose, a multitude of unique 3D microstructures can be fabricated on the substrate with desired geometries and dimensions. While the feasibility of grayscale lithography with such a polymeric mask has been reported by us earlier, this paper describes the fabrication of master mold and polymeric grayscale photomask.

Defining the emitter window is one of the most critical lithographic steps in a BiCMOS process. Step-and-scan exposure tools are typically the largest component of fixed capital expense so the industry is constantly trying to push the resolution limit without purchasing new equipment. As the industry extends KrF scanner to 0.13μm BiCMOS process, the lithography process window of shallow trenches patterns which are typical for emitter windows will be challenged. Generally speaking, printing these patterns with conventional single exposure methods will suffer from lack of sufficient process window and severe line-end shortening. In this paper, we present a method that uses KrF scanners and several resolution enhancement techniques including attenuated phase shift masks (att-PSM), model-based optical proximity correction (MbOPC), and a multi-focal exposure technique, to improve the process window of 0.13μm emitter window features. Characterization results are shown for the process window, side lobe printability margin, and line-end shortening. Comparisons are made to a traditional exposure method. The results demonstrate a significant increase in depth of focus as well as improvements in line-end shortening and intra-wafer CD uniformity.

Digital micromirror device (DMD) based maskless lithography has a number of advantages including process flexibility, no physical photomask requirement, fast turnaround time, cost effectiveness. It can be particularly useful in the development stage of microfluidic and bioMEMS applications. In this report, we describe the initial results of thick resist SU-8 patterning, soft lithography with polydimethylsiloxane (PDMS) and lift-off of Cr features using a modified DMD maskless system. Exposures of various patterns and microfluidic channels reveal that the system is well capable of printing 60 μm thick resist at a resolution as small as a single pixel (less than 13 μm) with an aspect ratio about 5:1. Both negatively and positively tapered sidewalls are achieved by projecting the UV light from front side of the SU-8 coated Si wafer and from the back side of the coated glass, respectively. The positive sidewall has an angle 88o which is ideal to serve as a mold for subsequent PDMS soft lithography. Both SU-8 and PDMS microfluidic devices for biomolecular synthesis were fabricated with this maskless system. In addition, a lift-off process was also developed with the intention to create built-in metal features such as electrodes and heaters.

A top challenge for Photolithographers during a process transfer involving multiple-generation scanners is tool matching. In a more general sense, the task is to ensure that the wafer printing results in the receiving fab will match or even exceed those of the originating fab. In this paper we report on two strategies that we developed to perform a photo process transfer that is tailored to the scanner's capabilities. The first strategy presented describes a method to match the CD performance of the product features on the transferred scanner. A second strategy is then presented which considers also the down-stream process tools and seeks to optimize the process for yield. Results presented include: ASML TWINSCAN^TM XT:1700i and XT:1900i scanners 1D printing results from a line-space test reticle, parametric sensitivity calculations for the two scanners on 1D patterns, simulation predictions for a process-optimized scanner-matching procedure, and final wafer results on 2D production patterns. Effectiveness of the optimization strategies was then concluded.

For 32 nm Node Logic Device, we studied the effect of laser bandwidth variation on Optical Proximity Effect (OPE) by investigating through-pitch critical dimension (CD) performance. Our investigation evaluated CD performance with and without the application of Sub-resolution Assist Features (SRAF). These results enabled us to determine the Iso-Dense Bias (IDB), and sensitivity to laser bandwidth, for both SRAF and no-SRAF cases, as well as the impact on Process Window. From the IDB results we present the required laser bandwidth stability in order to maintain OPE variation within CD Budget tolerances. We also introduce OPE matching results between different generation Immersion Lithography exposure tools evaluated for 45nm Node Logic Device.

As patterning technology advances beyond 45-nm half-pitch, the process window shrinks dramatically even with advanced resolution enhancement techniques. Beamfocus represents one of the process parameters that has a significant contribution to the overall critical feature dimension error budget. In building an optical model for proximity correction, the final model quality strongly depends on matching the focus used in the simulation to the experimental focus conditions. In this paper, we present a new method to determine the best beamfocus and verify its accuracy using actual test pattern measurements.

Aggressive pitch requirements for line/space pattern devices require the usage of extreme off-axis illumination schemes to enhance the resolution of the exposure tools. These illumination schemes stress the quality of the optics because of the anisotropy of the optical paths through the lens. Moreover, the marginalities on the patterning are dramatically enhanced if two or more illumination modes are requested in the lithography process. The effects on overlay between double exposure layers exposed with different illumination settings, with one being an extreme illumination setting, will be discussed and two approaches will be addressed to compensate the resulting overlay fingerprint. The first approach optimizes the lens setup by means of a dedicated scanner option to minimize the lens effects on overlay and reduce the distortion for each layer: in this case the simulation time and the impact on other imaging parameters will be carefully evaluated. The second methodology corrects the induced misalignment by a high order modelling compensation. This approach requests the insertion of a suitable set of overlay measurement targets into the product frame to appropriately fit the distortion matching of the two layers.

Previous study has shown that off-axis illumination (OAI) which employs duplicate conventional source shape such as double dipole, double annular or double quadrupole can reduce the effect of line width fluctuation and process window degradation at the forbidden pitch. In this paper, influence of the new OAI source shape on line end shortening and corner rounding effect is studied. Despite the advantage of reduced line width fluctuation, the proximity effect at line ends and corners for new source shapes need to be examined because both lateral and longitudinal pattern fidelity is important in actual implementation. Simulation study will be used for the study of line end shortening and corner rounding effect using new source shapes and the results will be compared with those resulted from annular illumination. Line end structures such as end to end, staggered, and T-shaped patterns are used for line end shortening study. For corner rounding, L-shaped and U-shaped structure are used. The pattern density and line end separation of feature will be varied to determine the important factors that cause image distortion. Results has shown that new source shapes have similar line end shortening and corner rounding characteristic with the conventional one. Besides, the variation of new source shapes for different pattern density and line end separation is relatively smaller compared with conventional OAI source shapes.

Hyper NA system has been introduced to develop sub-60nm node memory devices. Especially memory industries including DRAM and NAND Flash business have driven much finer technology to improve productivity. Polarization at hyper NA has been well known as important optical technology to enhance imaging performance and also achieve very low k1 process. The source polarization on dense structure has been used as one of the major RET techniques. The process capabilities of various layers under specific illumination and polarization have been explored. In this study, polarization characteristic on 40nm memory device will be analyzed. Especially, TE (Transverse Electric) polarization and linear X-Y polarization on hyper NA ArF system will be compared and investigated. First, IPS (Intensity in Preferred State) value will be measured with PMM (Polarization Metrology Module) to confirm polarization characteristic of each machine before simulation. Next simulation will be done to estimate the CD variation impact of each polarization to different illumination. Third, various line and space pattern of DRAM and Flash device will be analyzed under different polarized condition to see the effect of polarization on CD of actual wafer. Finally, conclusion will be made for this experiment and future work will be discussed. In this paper, the behavior of 40nm node memory devices with two types of polarization is presented and the guidelines for polarization control is discussed based on the patterning performances.

As the semiconductor device size shrinks without concomitant increase of the numerical aperture (NA=1.35) or index of the immersion fluid from 32 nm technology node, 22 nm patterning technology presents challenges in resolution as well as process window. Therefore, aggressive Resolution Enhancement Technique (RET), Design for Manufacturability (DFM) and layer specific lithographic process development are strongly required. In order to achieve successful patterning, co-optimization of the design, RET and lithographic process becomes essential at the 22 nm technology node. In this paper, we demonstrate the patterning of the active layer for 22 nm planar transistor device and discuss achievements and challenges in 22 nm lithographic printing. Key issues identified include printing tight pitches and 2-D features simultaneously without sacrificing the cell size, while maintaining large process window. As the poly-gate pitch is tightened, the need for improved corner rounding performance is required inorder to ensure proper gate length across the entire gate width. Utilizing water immersion at NA=1.2 and 1.35, we will demonstrate patterning of the active layer in a 22 nm technology node SRAM of a bit-cell having a size of 0.1 μm² and smaller while providing large process window for other features across the chip. It is shown that highly layer-specific and design-aware RET and lithographic process developments are critical for the success of 22 nm node technology.

The objective of this work is to describe the advances in the use of C-Quad polarized illumination for densest pitches in back end of line thin wire in 32m technology and outlook for 28 nm technology with NA of 1.35 on a 193nm wavelength scanner. Through simulation and experiments, we found that moving from Annular to C-Quad illumination provides improvement in intensity and contrast. We studied the patterning performance of C-Quad illumination for 1D dense, semi dense, isolated features with and without polarization. Polarization shows great improvement in contrast and line edge roughness for dense pattern. Patterning performance of isolated and semi-isolated features was the same with and without polarization.

Authors would like to raise a discussion about image intensity for surface exposure, off course, including optical lithography. As a springboard for the discussion, a novel definition of image "intensity", which expresses local irradiance associating with optical image, is proposed. An experimental result, which strongly supports the proposed "intensity", is also obtained. To describe exposure dose, energy input for unit area with unit of J/m2, is applied as a measure of this amount. A phrase of "dose-to-clear" is frequently used to show sensitivity of a resist film. In contrast, conventional image intensity of optical image is defined as a value, which is proportional to volume energy density associating with image. The value is described with unit of J/m3. In some papers, it is mentioned that number of photochemical reactions in resist film is proportional to the volume energy density of electromagnetic filed, that is, conventional image intensity. It seems unclear what physical value is proper measure of surface exposure. We considered that, in optical lithography, energy flux is proper value to indicate degree of resist exposure from experience and some former reports. Then, a novel image "intensity", which expresses local irradiance associating with optical image, is proposed. The proposed image "intensity" is proportional to surface normal component of Poynting vector.

It is common for computational lithography optimization to be performed using the metrics of the simulated aerial image (AI). Using the AI, the wafer-level CD can be estimated in a number of ways, such as thresholding with or without convolution of the AI with a point-spread function. The assumption of such an approach is that the relationship between the AI CD and the resist CD response is linear. However, the properties of resist reaction-diffusion-development yield a process which is highly non-linear. For example, it is well-known that different photoresists produce a different lithographic response to the same aerial image; isofocality, depth-of-focus, exposure latitude, MEF etc. all vary from one resist to another for the same projection optics and mask. Several publications have demonstrated that a well-calibrated physical resist model can be extrapolated to accurately predict the CD and profile response of the resist process over a wide range of optical and process conditions^1-4. In this work, the divergence in performance between resist processes and the projected image-in-the resist is explored through simulation.

Modeling of an aerial image in projection lithography was considered as an important part of R&D for a long time. Its role evolved from an "illustrative" to "predictive" method. In last years it became one of the basic components for optimization of both layouts (PSM, OPC, DFM) [1-5] and optical systems (scanner NA, shape and size of illuminator etc) [6-8]. Mathematical models and algorithms for the simulation of aerial images were developed based on either Hopkins's or Abbe's or coherent decomposition approaches. In this paper, we describe an analytical advancement of Abbe's method. We present new algorithms for faster simulation of aerial images for integrated circuit patterns. Our approach can be efficiently used for repetitive simulations of varied optical systems (no need for time-consuming re-generation of kernel functions or TCC); the accuracy of simulation is well-controlled and does not depend on the problem of "square grid over circular NA".

A new simulation method with Chebyshev expansion is proposed to calculate three-dimensional resist profiles in a short time using Fast Cosine Transform (FCT) algorithm. This method can be applied to the solution of the full 3D model for OPC and LCC, and it is valid to evaluate the cross-sectional resist shape under the condition where the influence of reflection wave from the underlayer is significant. We show the results of evaluation with regard to accuracy and precision, expanding three-dimensional profiles using Chebyshev expansion. In addition, we report the comparison with numerical experiments.

In optical lithography light diffracted from the mask has been customary assumed to have constant amplitude with the angle of incidence of the light illuminating the mask. This approximation, known as constant scattering coefficient approximation, has been successfully used at small NA. As the NA increases to unity and beyond, to cope with the continuous demand for shrinking integrated circuits device dimensions and densities, the validity of this approximation becomes questionable. In this paper, we study diffracted field variation with the angle of incidence using physical theory of diffraction. An asymptotic theory like the physical theory of diffraction allows us to better understand, quantify, and model using analytical formulae, induced effects of light diffraction from mask at oblique incidence. This paper presents a semi analytical model that describes diffracted field variation with angle of incidence. The model accuracy is validated by comparison with rigorous field simulations using Panoramic software.

It is well-known that calculations of the propagation of partially coherent light, such as those required for the calculation of two-dimensional image intensities, involve four-dimensional functions. Recently, Wald et al [Proc SPIE, 59621G, 2005] outlined a method for reducing the four-dimensional problem to a purely twodimensional one. Instead of an exact modal expansion of the mutual coherence function or cross-spectral density, an approximate expansion is used, into what we call elementary functions. In this paper, rules of thumb are developed for fast and efficient computation of the image intensity in a simple partially coherent lithographic imaging system.

The mechanism of chemically amplified resist plays a critical role in the modeling of the latent image. To achieve a practical model which can fit into the time frame of OPC, some simplifications and assumptions have to be made. We introduced regression kernels that take into account best exposure focus difference between isotropic pitch, dense, and line end features for the evaluation of image intensity. It compares the image intensity (signal) over small changes above and/or below the regressed "nominal" image position, which in principle corresponds to evaluating the intensity signal at various depths of a fixed resist profile thus can also be regressed for optimization during model development. Our calibration has shown that the model brought a great improvement in prediction for difficult structures such as dense features at or near the optical resolution limit and 2-dimensional features, which are the limiter of the overall model fitting accuracy for 45nm node and below. By replacing other existing techniques, total number of output kernels used for OPC operation is actually reduced with improvement of model accuracy. This model is proven to be a very effective yet accurate addition to the current OPC technology.

To evaluate the quality of microlithography result, massive aerial images are often generated for careful inspection using applications such as OPC LCC (Lithography Compaliance Check). The number of the pixels used in a 2D aerial image is in the order of O(n * n), where n is the image resolution, which means the runtime scales in a n² fashion. However, most of the quality indexes such as CDs or EPE (Edge Placement Error) can be readily observed using contours only and the number of pixels in a specific contour is around O(n) in general. Therefore, there is a huge waste (at least O(n)) of both computation time and memory in most microlithography aerial image simulation tools. The question is: "how to compute an image contour without explicitly generate images?". In this paper, we show that it is indeed feasible to know the image contour with an explicit image formation. The concept is to represent the image in an implicit way. In our algorithm, we utilize hierarchical region-wise function such as 2D polynomials to fit the aerial image kernels instead of using a bitmap type fit. Therefore, any LUT (Look-up-table) operation can be transformed into a polynomial look up and mathematical operations. Since there are only additive and subtractive operations during aerial image generation, we only need to apply same operations to the polynomial coefficients. Once the LUT operation is done,

Phase-shifting masks (PSM) are resolution enhancement techniques (RET) used extensively in the semiconductor industry to improve the resolution and pattern fidelity of optical lithography. Recently, a set of gradient-based PSM optimization methods have been developed to solve for the inverse lithography problem under coherent illumination. Most practical lithography systems, however, use partially coherent illumination due to non-zero width and off-axis light sources, which introduce partial coherence factors that must be accounted for in the optimization of PSMs. This paper thus focuses on developing a framework for gradient-based PSM optimization methods which account for the inherent nonlinearities of partially coherent illumination. In particular, the singular value decomposition (SVD) is used to expand the partially coherent imaging equation by eigenfunctions into a sum of coherent systems (SOCS). The first order coherent approximation corresponding to the largest eigenvalue is used in the PSM optimization. In order to influence the solution patterns to have more desirable manufacturability properties and higher fidelity, a post-processing of the mask pattern based on the 2D discrete cosine transformation (DCT) is introduced. Furthermore, a photoresist tone reversing technique is exploited in the design of PSMs to project extremely sparse patterns.

With escalating costs of higher-NA exposure tools, lithography engineers are forced to evaluate life-span extension of currently available lower-NA exposure tools. In addition to common resolution enhancement techniques such as off-axis illumination, edge movement, or applying sub-resolution assist features, Inverse Lithography Technology (ILT) tools available commercially at this moment offer means of extending current in-house tool resolution and enlarging process window for random as well as periodic mask patterns. In this paper we explore ILT pattern simplification procedures and model calibration for a range of illumination conditions. We study random pattern fidelity and critical dimension stability across process window for 65nm contact layer, and compare silicon results for both conventional optical proximity correction and inverse lithography techniques.

The 22nm node will be patterned with very challenging Resolution Enhancement Techniques (RETs) such as double exposure or double patterning. Even with those extreme RETs, the k1 factor is expected to be less than 0.3. There is some concern in the industry that traditional edge-based simulate-then-move Optical Proximity Correction (OPC) may not be up to the challenges expected at the 22nm node. Previous work presented the advantages of a so-called inverse OPC approach when coupled with extreme RETs or illumination schemes. The smooth mask contours resulting from inverse corrections were shown not to be limited by topological identity, feedback locality, or fragment conformity. In short, inverse OPC can produce practically unconstrained and often non-intuitive mask shapes. The authors will expand this comparison between traditional and inverse OPC to include likely 22nm RETs such as double dipole lithography and double patterning, comparing dimensional control through process window for each OPC method. The impact of mask simplification of the inverse OPC shapes into shapes which can be reliably manufactured will also be explored.

We propose an inversion calculation method based on a simple "pixel-flipping" approach. The simple method features innovative wavefront-expansion and wavefront-based damping techniques in order to obtain accentuated corrections near the drawn pattern. The method is first employed to be a stand-alone optical proximity correction solution that directly calculates the corrected masks with acceptable contours and image contrast. In addition, a model-based pre-OPC flow, where the initial sizing of drawn patterns and surrounding sub-resolution assist features (SRAF) are simultaneously generated in a single iteration using this inversion calculation is also proposed to minimize technology-transition risks and costs. A mask simplification technique based on the central moments is introduced in order to snap the corrections into 45 degree and axis-aligned line segments. This approach allows achieving optimized corrections while minimizing the impact to the existing and validated correction flow.

In this paper, we will outline the approach for optimizing the illumination conditions to print three-dimensional images in resist stacks of varying sensitivity in a single exposure. The algorithmic approach for acheiving both optimal common and weakest window is presented. Results will be presented which demonstrate the ability of the technique to create threedimensional structures. The performance of the common and weakest window formulation will be explored using this approach. Additionally, due to physical restrictions there are limitations to the type of patterns that can be printed with a single exposure in this manner, thus the abilities of such a technique will be explored.

As IC manufacturing goes from 45nm to 30nm node half-pitch, the lithography process k1 factor will fall below 0.25 by using water-based ArF-immersion scanner. To bridge the gap between ArF-immersion and next generation lithography, which is not ready yet for production, Double Patterning Technology (DPT) has been evaluated and identified as a promising solution as it utilizes existing equipment and processes. Self Aligned Double Patterning (SADP) has the advantage of dense array definition without overlay issue and is hence useful for memory device; but its characteristic restricts the feasibility of two-dimensional circuit pattern definition on the other hand. This paper describes the ideas of 30nm node NAND FLASH cell circuit critical feature (pickup, gate, contact array) definition by decomposing the target patterns to SADP defined dense array in conjunction with cropping and/or periphery masks steps. The concerns and issues of cropping/periphery mask step process integration as well as SADP alignment algorithm are investigated, and the countermeasures with alternative process schemes and novel frame designs are presented. Finally, simulation prediction has shown that the capability of 30nm NAND FLASH critical features patterning with depth of focus equal to or above 0.15um is expected at each mask step by ArF-dry lithography.

MRAM, a potential candidate of next generation or "universal" memory device, has been in process development and targeted for production. This high density non-volatile memory has a fast <20ns read/write cycle and unlimited endurance. Wordline layer is important for writing. Using KrF tool capability only, this "line & contact hole" wordline pattern must meet the challenge of aggressive pitch size shrinkage and process margin requirements in order to deliver reliable writing efficiency. Thus, appropriate process integration schemes demonstrating single exposure, double exposure and double patterning are compared. A comprehensive study from mask layout simulation and its cost to litho OL/CD process window experimental data analysis will be presented to achieve potential high yield manufacturing goal of the critical wordline design and process integration.

Sidewall Spacer Double Patterning (SSDP) has been adopted for the primary patterning technique for 3x nm technology node and beyond in flash memory device manufacturing. Three mask flow are used in SSDP process scheme in order to form the actual device layer; Core mask to define the template pattern, Trim mask to cut (cropping) the unneeded line ends from sidewall spacer, and Pad mask to pattern the periphery structures. Inter-layer and intra-layers alignment with sidewall spacer double patterning requires some engineering efforts compared to traditional single patterning alignment techniques. In this paper, we study the impacts of hard-mask materials on the inter-layer alignment as well as the mark design and process flow impact on intra-layer alignment. For intra-layer alignment, we searched various ASML ATHENA alignment marks and found the only workable mark (VSPM-AA157 Polar). Although the wafer quality scores during alignment were less than 0.1% in many cases, the alignment was successful and yielded acceptable performance for research and development activities requiring less than 10nm misalignment. Further new mark design and test should be carried in implementing in sidewall spacer double patterning process.

We developed an analysis system for simulating birefringence of an annealed ingot of CaF₂ single crystal caused by the residual stress after annealing process. The analysis system comprises the heat conduction analysis that provides the temperature distribution during the ingot annealing, the stress analysis to calculate the residual stress after ingot annealing, and the birefringence analysis of an annealed ingot induced by the residual stress. In the residual stress calculation, we can select either the elastic thermal stress analysis using the assumption of a stress-free temperature or more exact stress analysis considering the time-dependent nonlinear behavior of a material called creep. When we use the residual stress calculated from the creep deformation analysis of a CaF₂ ingot, we can obtain reasonable results both for the optical path difference values and for its distributions in comparison with the experimental results.

The TWINSCAN XT:1000H extends KrF lithography to expose layers that previously required more costly ArF lithography. These layers, including implants and metal interconnects, contain multiple, through pitch or random, 2- dimensional (2D) features. In this paper, we show process windows for 115 nm random via holes using conventional illumination, 110 nm dense & isolated via holes using a soft quasar illumination shape, 95 nm trenches through pitch with an annular illumination mode as well as the process windows for a combination of patterns representative for implant structures using a soft annular illumination mode. We also prove that the XT:1000H can be integrated in an existing high volume manufacturing environment: transfer of a 65 nm logic metal-1 layer from a high NA XT:1400 dry ArF scanner to the XT:1000H has been evaluated by optimizing the illumination settings and applying advanced mask design approaches to meet requirements for exposure latitude, depth of focus and MEEF. In addition, we show that the CD proximity matching performance between the XT:1000H and NA 0.8 XT:850 KrF scanners can be maximized using illumination setting optimization and EFESE focus scan. Finally, matched machine overlay performance between the XT:1000H and an XT:1900Gi ArF immersion scanner has been evaluated.

In advanced lithography processes, immersion lithography technology is beginning to be used in volume production at the 45-nm technology node. Beyond that, double-patterning immersion lithography is considered to be one of the promising technologies -meeting the requirements of the next-generation 32-nm technology node. Light source requirements for double patterning lithography tool are high power and high uptime to enhance economic efficiency, as well as extremely stable optical performances for high resolution capabilities. In this paper, the GT62A, Argon Fluoride (ArF) excimer laser light source which meets these requirements is introduced. The GT62A has an emission wavelength of 193-nm, a power output of 90 W and a repetition rate of 6,000 Hz. The dose uniformity of the GT62A was improved for reduction of Critical Dimension (CD) variation and better Critical Dimension Uniformity (CDU). A stable wavelength and a spectrum bandwidth of the GT62A satisfy the requirements of the high resolution lithography tools which need the steady focus stability. In addition, we verified by simulation that the spectrum bandwidth control in the GT62A contributes to Depth of Focus (DOF) enhancement. The new technology for the light source and detailed optical performance data are presented.

High lens numerical aperture for improving the resolution of a lithographic lens requires a high incident angle of exposure light in resist, which induces the vectorial effect. As a result, the vectorial effect has become more sensitive and vectorial fingerprint with higher accuracy has been required for effective image forming simulation. We successfully obtained true polarization characteristics of projection optics without the effect of measurement optics for more accurate image forming simulation. Accuracy of the result of separating Jones matrix of projection optics and that of measurement optics are presented.

ArF immersion technology is spotlighted as the enabling technology for the 45nm node and beyond. Recently, double exposure technology is also considered as a possible candidate for the 32nm node and beyond. We have already released an injection lock ArF excimer laser, the GT61A (60W/6kHz/10mJ/0.35pm) with ultra line-narrowed spectrum and stabilized spectrum performance for immersion lithography tools with N.A.>1.3, and we have been monitoring the field reliability data of our lasers used in the ArF immersion segment since Q4 2006. We show GT series reliability data in the field. GT series have high reliability performance. The availability that exceeds 99.5% proves the reliability of the GT series. We have developed high power injection lock ArF excimer laser for double patterning, the GT62A (90W/6000Hz/15mJ/0.35pm(E95)) based on the GigaTwin (GT) platform. Number of innovative and unique technologies are implemented on GT62A in order to reduce running cost of laser. We have introduced unique technology to enable 40 billion pulse lifetime of laser chambers to drastically reduce running cost. In addition, we have improved lifetime of Line Narrowing Module significantly by changing optical path. Furthermore, the extension of gas refill intervals was achieved by introducing new gas supply module and sophisticated gas control algorithm. We achieved the reduction of operation cost and down time by introducing these three technologies.

In immersion lithography, importance is placed on technology for controlling coating along the edge of the wafer. In the case of a top-coat process, it has been observed that the top coat can peel off during immersion exposure due to weak adhesion to the substrate, a characteristic of top-coat films. The peeling of the film is thought to adversely affect immersion-exposure equipment and the wafer surface by the formation of defects due to the contamination of the immersion-exposure tool and by residual particles. Nikon Corporation and Tokyo Electron Ltd. (TEL) have performed joint research and development in response to these problems. TEL has studied rinsing technology for the wafer edge section and established coating processes and control techniques that rinse the edge section to remove foreign matter and that control the cutting position of each film in the edge section. TEL has developed new processes and hardware to remove foreign matter introduced into the immersion-exposure tool, and has shown that this technology can help prevent contamination of exposure equipment. Nikon has established efficient on-body periodic rinsing as a new technology for exposure equipment that can reduce defect.

Leading-edge scanners in fabs worldwide have particularly high system utilization and require peak levels of system throughput and availability. Laser gas exchanges typically occur daily on these systems (or every 100M pulses or less), with each exchange lasting up to 20 minutes. This downtime has a direct negative effect on availability, and if it is reduced, the productivity of the litho cell increases. This paper will outline the immediate success fabs have experienced after equipping scanners with Cymer's Gas Lifetime eXtension (GLX^TM) technology, which increases scanner availability by extending the time between excimer laser gas exchanges by a factor of more than 10. To date, more than 100 leading-edge scanners feature Cymer's GLX technology, which has improved light source availability by more than 1.5 percent. Moreover, multiple chipmakers report more than 2 percent improvement in litho cell productivity due to GLX, corresponding to 2000 wafers/month increase for a 100,000 wafers/month fab. The increase in measured productivity is the leveraged benefit of reducing process interruptions around the refill cycle GLX technology extends the shot-based interval between gas refills to 1 billion pulses for Cymer's XLA light sources, and provides excellent stability in key optical performance parameters, such as bandwidth and dose stability over the entire gas life. This paper will provide extensive performance data during extended light source operation on litho cells equipped with GLX technology, and multiple use scenarios will be examined, including usage at memory and logic fabs. The paper will also discuss the performance of GLX2^TM technology which further extends the maximum time between light source gas exchanges from 1B pulses to 2B pulses, and reduces downtime associated with gas refills by a factor of 20. The stability and productivity benefits of this new technology can be realized under all light source utilization scenarios. With GLX2, the refill interval at high utilization chipmakers is 3 weeks, and 4-8 weeks at lower utilization customers. Metrics illustrating the success of each of these capabilities will be presented. The second-generation of GLX technology was launched in July 2008 after chipmakers responded favorably to GLX performance metrics.

Deep ultraviolet (DUV) lithography improvements have been focused on two paths: further increases in the effective numerical aperture (NA) beyond 1.3, and double patterning (DP). High-index solutions for increasing the effective NA have not gained significant momentum due to several technical factors, and have been eclipsed by an aggressive push to make DP a high-volume manufacturing solution. The challenge is to develop a cost-effective solution using a process that effectively doubles the lithography steps required for critical layers, while achieving a higher degree of overlay performance. As a result, the light source requirements for DP fall into 3 main categories: (a) higher power to enable higher throughput on the scanner, (b) lower operating costs to offset the increased number of process steps, and (c) high stability of optical parameters to support more stringent process requirements. The XLR 600i (6kHz, 90W @15mJ) was introduced last year to enable DP by leveraging the higher performance and lower operating costs of the ring architecture XLR 500i (6kHz, 60W @10mJ) platform currently used for 45nm immersion lithography in production around the world. In February 2009, the XLR 600ix was introduced as a 60/90W switchable product to provide flexibility in the transition to higher power requirements as scanner capabilities are enhanced. The XLR 600ix includes improved optics materials to meet reliability requirements while operating at higher internal fluences. In this paper we will illustrate the performance characteristics during extended testing. Examples of performance include polarization stability, divergence and pointing stability, which enable consistent pupil fill under extreme illumination conditions, as well as overall thermal stability which maintains constant beam performance under large changes in laser operating modes. Furthermore, the unique beam uniformity characteristics that the ring architecture generates result in lower peak energy densities that are comparable to those of a typical 60W excimer laser. In combination with the XLR's long pulse duration, this allows for long life scanner optics while operating at 15mJ.